IN 

GEORGE  HOLMES  HOWISON 


The  Great  Figures  of  the   Civil   War 
(Authoritative  portraits  of  the  Federal  and  Confederate  comman 


5TUART      JOHNSTON 


vlilitary   Commanders,   North   and    South 

s  as  reproduced  in  the  Photographic  History  of  the  Civil  War) 


HISTORY 

OF   THE 

UNITED    STATES 


FROM    ABORIGINAL    TIMES 
TO  TAFT'S  ADMINISTRATION 


By 

JOHN  CLARK  RIDPATH,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

ACADEMIC  EDITION 

Revised  1911  by 
THE  REVIEW  OF  REVIEWS 

ILLUSTRATED 


Volume 


THE   REVIEW    OF   REVIEWS   COMPANY 

NEW    YORK 


El7g 

v.  3 


COPYRIGHT  1874.  BY 

J.  T.  JONES 

COPYRIGHT  1902,  BY 

ROXANA  S.  RIDPATH 

COPYRIGHT  1911,  BY 

THE  AMERICAN   BOOK  CO. 

NEW  YORK 


THE  QUINN  &  BODEN  CO.  PRESt 
RAHWAV,  N.  J. 


V.  3 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


VOLUME  111 


8SI135 


CONTENTS 

VOLUME  III 

THE  END:  PAGES 

Mutiny    in    the    Army 449 

Greene    in    the    South 452-458 

Guilford  Courthouse 454 

La  Fayette  in  Virginia 458 

Cornwallis   and   Yorktown 460-462 

Peace  and  Independence 463-465 

CONFEDERATION  AND  UNION 

Early  Efforts  at  Union 465-467 

Articles    of    Confederation 467 

Defects    in    the    Articles 469 

Making  of  the  Constitution 470-472 

Washington  the   First  President 474 

ADAMS'  ADMINISTRATION: 

Strained  Relations  with  France 489-491 

Organization  of  the  Army 490-491 

Death   of  Washington 492 

Founding  of  the  Capital 493 

Alien    and    Sedition    Laws        ......  494 

JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION: 

Admission  of  Ohio 496 

Purchase    of    Louisiana 497 

Trouble  with  the  Barbary  States     .....  499-501 

Duel  Between   Hamilton   and  Burr        ....  502 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition 502-504 

Impressment  of  Seamen 505-508 

Fulton   and  the   Steamboat 508 

MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  THE  WAR  OF  1812: 

Repeal  of  the  Orders  in  Council 510 

Harrison   and   the   Indians 512-513 

The  President  and  the  Little  Belt 515 

Preparations  for  War 517 

Surrender   of   Michigan 519 

The  Constitution  and  the  Guerriere       ....  520 

Other    Sea    Fights 521-524 

Harrison  and  the  Northwest   .        .        .        .        .        .  526-532 

Perry's  Victory  on  the  Lake 532~534 

Chrysler's  Field 536 

Sea  Fights 537~54O 

Chippewa,  Lundy's  Lane,  Lake  Champlain  .        .        .  541-544 

Washington  and  Baltimore       .        .        .       .        .        .  546-548 

Battle  of  New  Orleans      .......  550-552 

Treaty  of  Ghent .  552 

Founding  of  Liberia 555 


Contents  v 

MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATION:  PAGES 

Internal    Improvements 558 

The  Erie  Canal    .        . 559 

Jackson  in   Florida 560 

Admission  of  New  States 561-562 

Purchase  of  Florida 561 

Missouri    Compromise 562-563 

The  Monroe  Doctrine 564 

Visit  from  La  Fayette 564-565 

ADAMS'  ADMINISTRATION: 

The  Panama  Congress 566-567 

The   Anti-Masons 568 

Protective  Tariff 569 

Campaign   of    1828 570 

JACKSON'S   ADMINISTRATION: 

The  Spoils  System 571 

Veto  of  the  Bank  Bill 572 

The  Webster-Hayne   Debate 573 

South  Carolina  and  Nullification 573~574- 

The  Black  Hawk  War 574 

Indian  Troubles  in  the  South 575-577 

Foreign  Relations 579 

VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION: 

War  with  the  Seminoles 582 

Panic  of  1837 583 

The   Independent   Treasury 584 

Rebellion  in  Canada 585 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  HARRISON  AND  TYLER: 

Death  of   Harrison 587 

Tyler  Vetoes  the  Bank  Bill 588 

Webster-Ashburton  Treaty 589 

Dorr  Rebellion  in  Rhode  Island     .....  589 

Anti-Rent  Riots  in  New  York 590 

The  Mormons 590-592 

Texas 593 

FOLK'S   ADMINISTRATION    AND   THE   MEXICAN   WAR: 

Zachary  Taylor  in  Texas 596-597 

Conquest  of  California 602-604 

Battle  of  Buena  Vista 604-605 

Scott  Captures  Vera  Cruz 606 

Cerro  Gordo         .        . 606-607 

Surrender    of    Mexico 610 

Treaty  of  Peace 611 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California 612 

ADMINISTRATION   OF  TAYLOR   AND   FILLMORE: 

California  Seeks  Statehood       ...      ...        .        .616 

Debates  on  the  Omnibus  Bill   .        .    -   .        .        .        .  617-619 

Lopez's  Expedition  to  Cuba     .       .       .       .       .       .  619 


vi  Contents 

P*ERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION:  PAGES 

Opening  of  the  Ports  of  Japan 624 

Douglas  and  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill         .       .       .  625 

Civil  War  in  Kansas 626 

BUCHANAN'S   ADMINISTRATION: 

Rebellion  in  Utah 628 

Laying  of  the  First  Atlantic  Cable 630 

The  Dred  Scott  Decision 631 

John  Brown  and  Harper's  Ferry 632 

Election    of   Lincoln 634 

Secession  of  Southern  States 635-636 

Admission    of   Kansas 637 

LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  THE  CIVIL  WAR: 

Lincoln-Douglas  Debates 638 

Firing  on  Fort  Surater 640-641 

Call  for  Troops 641 

The  Blockade 643 

CAUSES  OF  THE  WAR: 

Different  Constructions  of  the  Constitution  .        .        .  644 

Different  Systems  of  Labor 646 

Want  of  Intercourse 647 

Publication  of  Sectional  Books        .....  650 

FIRST   YEAR   OF  THE   WAR: 

McCIellan  in  West  Virginia   .        .        .        .        .       .  652 

Battle  of  Bull  Run 653-655 

Operations  in  Missouri 656-658 

Ball's  Bluff 658 

The   Trent  Affair 659-660 

CAMPAIGNS  OF  1862: 

Mill  Spring    .        .        .        .                661 

Fort  Donelson 662-664 

Battle  of  Shiloh 663-664 

Capture  of  Island  No.   10 665 

The  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac       .        .        .       .       .  667 

Capture  of  New  Orleans 669 

luka  and  Corinth .        .  670-671 

McCIellan  on  the  Peninsula 674-678 

Second  Bull  Run 679 

Antietam .    ,,  680 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Commanders  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War     .  Frontispiece 

President  Lincoln  and  General  McCIellan  After 

Antietam      .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .     facing  page  655 

LIST  OF  MAPS  PAGK 

Siege    of    Yorktown        .       .       .       ...       .       .  .     460 

The   Mexican    Campaign      ........     606 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  END 

FOR  the  Americans  the  year  1781  opened  gloom 
ily.  The  condition  of  the  army  was  desperate — 
no  food,  no  pay,  no  clothing.  Even  the  influence 
of  Washington  was  not  sufficient  to  quiet  the  grow 
ing  discontent  of  the  soldiery.  On  the  first  day  of 
January  the  whole  Pennsylvania  line,  numbering 
nearly  two  thousand,  mutinied,  left  their  camp  at 
Morristown,  and  marched  toward  Philadelphia. 
General  Wayne,  after  trying  in  vain  to  prevent  the 
insurrection,  went  with  his  men,  still  hoping  to 
control  them.  At  Princeton  they  were  met  by  two 
emissaries  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  were 
tempted  with  offers  of  money,  clothing,  and  re 
lease  from  military  service  if  they  would  desert 
the  American  standard.  The  mutinous  patriots 
made  answer  by  seizing  the  British  agents  and  de 
livering  them  to  General  Wayne  to  be  hanged  as 
spies.  For  this  deed  the  commissioners  of  Con 
gress,  who  now  arrived,  offered  the  insurgents  a 
large  reward,  but  the  reward  was  indignantly  re 
fused.  Washington,  knowing  how  shamefully  the 
army  had  been  neglected  by  Congress,  was  not  un 
willing  that  the  mutiny  should  take  its  own  course. 

449 


45 o     ...  History ,  of  the  •  United  States 

The  congressional  .agents  were  therefore  left  to 
adju^trierdifficuJt}?  ^iih  -th§.  rebellious  troops.  But 
the  breach  was  easily  healed;  a  few  liberal  con 
cessions  on  the  part  of  the  government  sufficed  to 
quiet  the  mutiny. 

About  the  middle  of  the  same  month  the  New 
Jersey  brigade,  stationed  at  Pompton,  revolted. 
This  movement  Washington  quelled  by  force. 
General  Robert  Howe  marched  to  the  camp  with 
five  hundred  regulars  and  compelled  twelve  of  the 
principal  mutineers  to  execute  the  two  leaders  of 
the  revolt.  From  that  day  order  was  completely 
restored.  These  insurrections  had  a  good  rather 
than  a  bad  effect;  Congress  was  thoroughly 
alarmed,  and  immediate  provisions  were  made  for 
the  better  support  of  the  army.  An  agent  was 
sent  to  France  to  obtain  a  further  loan  of  money; 
Robert  Morris  was  appointed  secretary  of  finance ; 
and  the  Bank  of  North  America  was  organized. 

In  the  North  military  movements  were  begun 
by  Arnold.  On  arriving  at  New  York  the  traitor 
had  received  the  promised  commission,  and  was 
now  a  brigadier-general  in  the  British  army.  In 
the  preceding  November,  Washington  and  Major 
Henry  Lee  formed  a  plan  to  capture  him. 
Sergeant  John  Champe  undertook  the  daring  en 
terprise,  deserted  to  the  enemy,  entered  New  York, 
joined  Arnold's  company,  and  with  two  assistants 
concerted  measures  to  abduct  him  from  the  city 
and  convey  him  to  the  American  camp.  But  Ar 
nold  suddenly  moved  his  quarters,  and  the  plan 
was  defeated.  A  month  afterward  he  was  given 


The  End  451 

command  of  a  fleet  and  a  land  force  of  sixteen 
hundred  men,  and  on  the  i6th  of  December  left 
New  York  to  make  a  descent  on  the  coasts  of 
Virginia. 

Early  in  January  the  traitor  entered  James 
River  and  began  war  on  his  countrymen.  His  pro 
ceedings  were  marked  with  much  ferocity,  but  not 
with  the  daring  which  characterized  his  former  ex 
ploits.  Again  Washington  planned  his  capture. 
The  French  fleet,  anchored  at  Newport,  was  or 
dered  to  sail  for  Virginia  to  co-operate  with  La 
Fayette,  who  was  sent  in  the  direction  of  Ports 
mouth  with  a  detachment  of  twelve  hundred  men. 
But  Admiral  Arbuthnot,  being  apprised  of  the 
movement,  sailed  from  New  York  and  drove  the 
French  squadron  back  to  Rhode  Island.  La  Fa 
yette,  deprived  of  the  expected  aid,  was  forced  to 
abandon  the  undertaking,  and  Arnold  again 
escaped. 

About  the  middle  of  April,  General  Phillips  ar 
rived  at  Portsmouth  with  a  force  of  two  thousand 
British  regulars.  Joining  his  troops  with  those 
of  Arnold,  he  assumed  command  of  the  whole,  and 
again  the  fertile  districts  of  Lower  Virginia  were 
ravaged  with  fire  and  sword.  Early  in  May,  Phil 
lips  died,  and  for  seven  days  Arnold  held  the  su 
preme  command  of  the  British  forces  in  Virginia. 
That  was  the  height  of  his  treasonable  glory.  On 
the  20th  of  the  month  Lord  Cornwallis  arrived  at 
Petersburg  and  ordered  him  to  begone.  Return 
ing  to  New  York,  he  received  from  Clinton  a  sec 
ond  detachment,  entered  the  Sound,  landed  at  New 


452  History  of  the  United  States 

London,  in  his  native  State,  and  captured  the  town. 
Fort  Griswold,  which  was  defended  by  Colonel 
Ledyard  with  a  hundred  and  fifty  militiamen,  was 
carried  by  storm.  When  Ledyard  surrendered,  the 
British  officer  who  received  his  sword  stabbed  him 
to  death;  it  was  the  signal  for  a  massacre  of  the 
garrison,  seventy-three  of  whom  were  murdered  in 
cold  blood ;  of  the  remainder,  thirty  were  wounded 
and  the  rest  made  prisoners.  With  this  bloody 
and  ignominious  deed  the  name  of  Arnold  disap 
pears  from  American  history. 

Meanwhile,  some  of  the  most  stirring  events 
of  the  war  had  occurred  at 
the  South.  At  the  close  of 
the  preceding  year  General 
Greene  had  taken  command 
of  the  American  army — 
which  was  only  the  shadow 
of  an  army — at  Charlotte, 
North  Carolina.  Corn- 
wallis  had  fallen  back  in 
the  direction  of  Camden. 
Greene  with  great  energy 
reorganized  his  forces  and 
divided  them  into  an  eastern 
and  a  western  division;  the 

command  of  the  latter  was  given  to  General  Morgan. 
In  the  first  days  of  January  this  gallant  officer  was 
sent  into  the  Spartanburg  district  of  South  Caro 
lina  to  repress  the  Tories  and  encourage  the  patriot 
militia.  His  success  was  such  as  to  exasperate 
Cornwallis,  who  immediately  dispatched  Colonel 


General  Nathanael  Greene 


The  End  453 

Tarleton  with  his  famous  cavalry  legion  to  de 
stroy  Morgan's  forces  or  drive  them  out  of  the 
State.  The  Americans,  apprised  of  Tarleton's  ap 
proach,  took  a  favorable  position  at  the  Cowpens, 
where,  on  the  iyth  of  January,  they  were  attacked 
by  the  British,  eleven  hundred  strong.  Tarleton, 
confident  of  success,  made  the  onset  with  impetu 
osity;  but  Morgan's  men  sustained  the  shock  with 
firmness,  and,  when  the  enemy's  reserves  were 
called  into  action,  either  held  their  ground  or  re 
tired  in  good  order.  At  the  crisis  of  the  battle 
the  American  cavalry,  commanded  by  Colonel 
William  Washington,  made  a  furious  charge  and 
scattered  the  British  dragoons  like  chaff  before 
them.  The  rout  was  complete — the  victory  deci 
sive.  Washington  and  Tarleton  had  a  personal 
encounter  on  the  field,  and  the  latter  fled  with  a 
sword-gash  in  his  hand.  His  corps  was  annihi 
lated;  ten  British  officers  and  ninety  privates  were 
killed,  and  five  hundred  and  twenty-three  were  cap 
tured.  Two  pieces  of  artillery,  eight  hundred  mus 
kets,  and  two  flags  were  among  the  trophies  of 
the  battle. 

When  Cornwallis,  who  was  encamped  with  his 
army  thirty  miles  down  the  Catawba,  heard  of 
the  disaster  to  his  arms,  he  made  a  rapid  march  up 
the  river  to  reach  the  fords  in  Morgan's  rear.  But 
Greene,  who  had  also  heard  the  news,  hastened  to 
the  camp  of  Morgan,  took  command  in  person, 
and  began  a  hasty  retreat.  At  the  same  time  he 
sent  word  to  General  Huger,  who  commanded  the 
eastern  division,  to  fall  back  toward  Charlotte, 


454  History  of  the  United  States 

where  it  was  proposed  to  form  a  junction  of  the 
two  wings  of  the  army.  On  the  28th  of  January, 
Morgan's  division  reached  the  Catawba  and 
crossed  to  the  northern  bank,  with  prisoners, 
spoils,  and  baggage.  Within  two  hours  the  Brit 
ish  van  arrived  at  the  ford;  but  it  was  already 
sunset,  and  Cornwallis  concluded  to  wait  for  the 
morning;  then  he  would  cross  and  win  an  easy 
victory.  During  the  night  the  clouds  opened  and 
poured  down  torrents;  in  the  morning  the  river 
was  swollen  to  a  flood.  It  was  many  days  before 
the  British  forced  their  way  across,  dispersing  the 
militia  on  the  opposite  bank.  And  now  began  a 
second  race  of  the  two  hostile  armies,  first  to  the 
valley  of  the  Yadkin  and  later  into  Virginia,  where 
Greene's  army  was  re-enforced  by  several  hundred 
militia.  At  length  Greene  took  a  strong  position 
at  Guilford  Courthouse,  in  North  Carolina,  and 
awaited  his  antagonist.  Cornwallis,  accepting  the 
challenge,  at  once  moved  forward  to  the  attack. 
On  the  1 5th  of  March  the  two  armies  met  on 
Greene's  chosen  ground,  and  a  severe  but  indeci 
sive  battle  was  fought.  The  forces  of  Greene 
were  superior  in  numbers,  and  those  of  Cornwallis 
in  discipline.  If  the  American  militia  had  stood 
firm,  the  result  would  not  have  been  doubtful;  but 
the  raw  recruits  behaved  badly,  broke  line,  and 
fled.  Confusion  ensued;  the  American  regulars 
fought  hard,  but  were  eventually  driven  from  the 
field  and  forced  to  retreat  for  several  miles.  In 
killed  and  wounded  the  British  loss  was  greatest; 
but  large  bodies  of  the  militia  returned  to  their 


The  End  455 

homes,  reducing  Greene's  army  to  less  than  three 
thousand.  Nevertheless,  to  the  British  the  result 
was  equivalent  to  a  defeat. 

Cornwallis  now  boasted,  made  big  proclama 
tions,  and  then  retreated.  On  the  7th  of  April 
he  reached  the  sea-coast  at  Wilmington,  and  im 
mediately  thereafter  proceeded  to  Virginia.  How 
he  arrived  at  Petersburg,  superseded  Arnold,  and 
sent  him  out  of  the  State  has  already  been  nar 
rated.  The  British  forces  in  the  Carolinas  re 
mained  under  command  of  Lord  Rawdon,  who 
was  posted  with  a  strong  division  at  Camden. 
With  him  General  Greene,  after  the  departure  of 
Cornwallis,  was  left  to  contend.  The  American 
army  was  accordingly  advanced  into  South  Caro 
lina.  A  detachment  was  sent  against  Fort  Watson, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Santee,  and  the  place  was 
obliged  to  surrender.  Greene  marched  with  the 
main  body  to  Hobkirk's  Hill,  a  short  distance 
north  of  Camden,  posted  his  men  in  a  strong  po 
sition,  and  awaited  the  movements  of  Rawdon. 
What  that  officer  would  do  was  not  long  a  ques 
tion  of  doubt.  On  the  25th  of  April  he  moved 
from  Camden  with  his  entire  force  and  attacked 
the  American  camp.  For  once  General  Greene 
came  near  being  surprised;  but  his  men  were 
swiftly  formed  for  battle;  Rawdon's  column  was 
badly  arranged;  and  for  a  while  it  seemed  that 
the  entire  British  force  would  be  slain  or  captured. 
Just  at  the  critical  moment,  however,  some  valu 
able  American  officers  who  commanded  in  the  cen 
ter  were  killed;  their  regiments,  becoming  con- 


456  History  of  the  United  States 

fused,  fell  back;  Rawdon  saw  his  advantage, 
pressed  forward,  broke  the  center,  captured  the 
hill,  and  won  the  day.  The  Americans  retired 
from  the  field,  but  saved  their  artillery  and  bore 
away  the  wounded.  Again  the  genius  of  Greene 
made  defeat  seem  little  less  than  victory. 

On  the  loth  of  May,  Lord  Rawdon  evacuated 
Camden  and  retired  to  Eutaw  Springs,  sixty-five 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Santee.  The  British 
posts  at  .Granby,  Orangeburg,  Fort  Mott,  and  Au 
gusta  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  pa 
triots.  By  the  5th  of  June  only  Eutaw  Springs, 
Charleston,  and  Ninety-Six  remained  in  possession 
of  the  enemy.  After  considerable  sparring  the 
British  fell  back  from  Ninety-Six  to  Orangeburg 
and  the  Americans  retired  to  the  highlands  in  the 
Sumter  district  and  in  the  healthful  air  of  the 
hill  country  passed  the  summer  months. 

Sumter,  Lee,  and  Marion  were  constantly 
abroad,  traversing  the  country  in  all  directions, 
cutting  off  supplies  from  the  enemy,  breaking  his 
lines  of  communication,  and  smiting  the  Tories 
right  and  left.  Lord  Rawdon  now  resigned  the 
command  of  the  British  forces  to  Colonel  Stuart 
and  went  to  Charleston.  While  there  he  became 
a  principal  actor  in  one  of  the  most  shameful 
scenes  of  the  Revolution.  Colonel  Isaac  Hayne, 
an  eminent  patriot  who  had  formerly  taken  an 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  was  caught  in  com 
mand  of  a  troop  of  American  cavalry.  He  was  at 
once  taken  to  Charleston,  arraigned  before  Colonel 
Balfour,  the  commandant,  hurried  through  the 


The  End  457 

mockery  of  a  trial,  and  condemned  to  death.  Raw- 
don  gave  his  sanction,  and  on  the  3ist  of  July, 
Colonel  Hayne  was  hanged.  Just  men  in  Europe 
joined  with  the  patriots  of  America  in  denouncing 
the  act  as  worthy  of  barbarism. 

On  the  22d  of  August,  General  Greene  left  the 
heights  of  the  Santee  and  marched  toward  Orange- 
burg.  The  British  decamped  at  his  approach  and 
took  post  at  Eutaw  Springs,  forty  miles  below. 
The  Americans  pressed  after  them  and  overtook 
them  on  the  8th  of  September.  One  of  the  fiercest 
battles  of  the  war  ensued;  and  General  Greene  was 
denied  a  decisive  victory  only  by  the  bad  conduct 
of  some  of  his  men,  who,  before  the  field  was  fairly 
won,  abandoned  themselves  to  eating  and  drink 
ing  in  the  enemy's  camp.  Stuart  rallied  his  troops, 
returned  to  the  charge,  and  regained  his  position. 
Greene,  after  losing  five  hundred  and  fifty-five 
men,  gave  over  the  struggle.  The  British  lost  in 
killed  and  wounded  nearly  seven  hundred,  and 
more  than  five  hundred  prisoners.  On  the  day 
after  the  battle  Stuart  hastily  retreated  to  Monk's 
Corner;  Greene  followed  with  his  army,  and  after 
two  months  of  maneuvering  and  desultory  warfare 
the  British  were  driven  into  Charleston.  In  the 
meantime,  General  St.  Clair  had  cleared  North 
Carolina  by  forcing  the  enemy  to  evacuate  Wil 
mington.  In  the  whole  country  south  of  Virginia 
only  Charleston  and  Savannah  remained  under  do 
minion  of  the  king's  army;  the  latter  city  was 
evacuated  by  the  British  on  the  nth  of  July,  and 
the  former  on  the  I4th  of  December,  1782.  Such 


458  History  of  the  United  States 

was  the  close  of  the  Revolution  in  the  Carolinas 
and  Georgia. 

But  the  final  scene  was  to  be  enacted  in  Virginia. 
There,  in  the  last  days  of  April,  1781,  Cornwallis 
took  command  of  the  British  army  and  began  to 
ravage  the  country  on  both  banks  of  the  James. 
In  the  course  of  the  following  two  months  prop 
erty,  public  and  private,  was  destroyed  to  the  value 
of  fifteen  million  dollars.  La  Fayette,  to  whom 
the  defense  of  the  State  had  been  intrusted,  was 
unable  to  meet  Cornwallis  in  the  field,  but  watched 
his  movements  with  sleepless  vigilance.  While  the 
British  were  in  the  vicinity  of  Richmond  a  detach 
ment  under  Tarleton  proceeded  as  far  west  as 
Charlottesville,  where  the  Virginia  legislature  was 
in  session.  The  town  was  taken,  the  country  devas 
tated,  and  seven  members  of  the  assembly  made 
prisoners.  Governor  Jefferson  escaped  only  by 
riding  into  the  mountains. 

When  there  was  little  left  to  destroy,  Cornwal 
lis  marched  down  the  north  bank  of  the  James 
to  Green  Springs,  eight  miles  above  the  site  of 
Jamestown.  From  here,  after  a  skirmish  with 
General  Wayne,  he  conveyed  his  army  to  York- 
town,  on  the  southern  bank  of  York  River,  a 
few  miles  above  the  mouth.  La  Fayette  quickly 
advanced  into  the  peninsula  and  took  post  but 
eight  miles  distant  from  the  British.  From  this 
position  he  sent  urgent  dispatches  to  Washington, 
beseeching  him  to  come  to  Virginia  and  aid  in 
striking  the  enemy  a  fatal  blow.  A  powerful 
French  armament,  commanded  by  Count  de 


The  End  459 

Grasse,  was  hourly  expected  in  the  Chesapeake, 
and  La  Fayette  saw  at  a  glance  that  if  a  fleet  could 
be  anchored  in  the  mouth  of  York  River,  cutting 
off  retreat,  the- doom  of  Cornwallis  would  be 
sealed.  During  the  months  of  July  and  August, 
Washington,  from  his  camp  on  the  Hudson,  looked 
wistfully  to  the  South.  But  all  the  while  Clinton 
was  kept  in  feverish  alarm  by  false  dispatches, 
written  for  the  purpose  of  falling  into  his  hands. 
These  intercepted  messages  indicated  that  the 
Americans  and  French  would  immediately  begin 
the  siege  of  New  York;  and  for  that  Clinton  made 
ready.  When,  in  the  last  days  of  August,  he  was 
informed  that  Washington  had  broken  up  his 
camp  and  was  already  marching  with  his  whole 
army  toward  Virginia,  the  British  general  would 
not  believe  it,  but  went  on  preparing  for  a  siege. 
Washington  pressed  rapidly  forward,  paused  two 
days  at  Mount  Vernon,  where  he  had  not  been  for 
six  years,  and  met  La  Fayette  at  Williamsburg. 
Meanwhile,  on  the  3Oth  of  August,  the  French 
fleet,  numbering  twenty-eight  ships  of  the  line,  with 
nearly  four  thousand  troops  on  board,  had  reached 
the  Chesapeake  and  safely  anchored  in  the  mouth 
of  York  River.  Cornwallis,  with  the  British  army, 
was  blockaded  both  by  sea  and  land. 

To  add  still  further  to  the  strength  of  the  al 
lies,  Count  de  Barras,  who  commanded  the  French 
flotilla  at  Newport,  sailed  into  the  Chesapeake  with 
eight  ships  of  the  line  and  ten  transports,  bearing 
cannon  for  the  siege.  On  the  5th  of  September 
the  English  admiral  .Graves  appeared  in  the  bay, 


460 


History  of  the  United  States 


and  a  naval  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  British 
ships  were  so  roughly  handled  that  they  returned 
to  New  York.  On  the  28th  of  September  the  al 
lied  armies,  superior  in  numbers  and  confident  of 
success,  encamped  around  Yorktown.  The  story  of 
the  siege  is  brief.  Tarleton,  who  occupied  Glouces 
ter  Point,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  made 


one  spirited  sally,  but  was  driven  back  with  severe 
loss.  On  the  night  of  the  6th  of  October  the 
trenches  were  opened  at  the  distance  of  six  hun 
dred  yards  from  the  British  works.  The  can 
nonade  was  constant  and  effective.  On  the  nth 
of  the  month  the  allies  drew  their  second  parallel 
within  three  hundred  yards  of  Cornwallis's  re 
doubts.  On  the  night  of  the  I4th  the  enemy's 


The  End 


461 


outer  works  were  carried  by  storm.  At  daydawn 
of  the  i6th  the  British  made  a  sortie,  only  to  be 
hurled  back  into  their  intrenchments.  On  the  next 
day  Cornwallis  proposed  a  surrender;  on  the  i8th 
terms  of  capitulation  were  drawn  up  and  signed; 
and  at  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  i9th 
Major-General  O'Hara — for  Cornwallis,  feigning 
sickness,  remained  in  his  tent — led  the  whole  Brit- 


The  Surrender  of  Cornwallis 

ish  army  from  the  trenches  into  an  open  field, 
where,  in  the  presence  of  the  allied  ranks  of  France 
and  America,  seven  thousand  two  hundred  and 
forty-seven  English  and  Hessian  soldiers  laid 
down  their  arms,  delivered  their  standards,  and 
became  prisoners  of  war.  Eight  hundred  and 
forty  sailors  were  also  surrendered.  Seventy-five 
brass  and  thirty-one  iron  guns  were  taken,  together 
with  all  the  accouterments  of  the  army. 


462  History  of  the  United  States 

By  a  swift  courier  the  news  was  borne  to  Con 
gress.  On  the  evening  of  the  23d  the  messenger 
rode  into  Philadelphia.  When  the  sentinels  of  the 
city  called  the  hour  of  ten  that  night,  they  added, 
"  and  Cornivallis  is  taken."  On  the  morrow  Con 
gress  assembled,  and  before  that  august  body  the 
dispatch  of  Washington  was  read.  The  members, 
exulting  and  weeping  for  gladness,  went  in  con 
course  with  the  citizens  to  the  Lutheran  church  and 
turned  the  afternoon  into  a  thanksgiving.  The 
note  of  rejoicing  sounded  through  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land;  for  it  was  seen  that  the  do 
minion  of  the  Briton  in  America  was  forever 
broken. 

After  the  surrender  the  conquered  army  was 
marched  under  guard  to  the  barracks  of  Lancaster. 
Washington,  with  the  victorious  Americans  and 
French,  returned  to  the  camps  of  New  Jersey  and 
the  Hudson.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  the 
news  was  received  with  every  demonstration  of 
gladness.  In  England  the  king  and  his  ministers 
heard  the  tidings  with  mortification  and  rage;  but 
many  of  the  English  people  were  either  secretly 
pleased  or  openly  rejoiced.  During  the  fall  and 
winter  the  ministerial  majority  in  Parliament  fell 
off  rapidly;  and  on  the  2Oth  of  March,  1782,  Lord 
North  and  his  friends,  unable  longer  to  conduct 
the  government,  resigned  their  offices.  A  new 
ministry  was  immediately  formed,  favorable  to 
America,  favorable  to  freedom,  favorable  to  peace. 
In  the  beginning  of  May  the  command  of  the  Brit 
ish  forces  in  the  United  States  was  transferred 


The  End  463 

from  Clinton  to  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  a  man  friendly 
to  American  interests.  The  hostile  demonstrations 
of  the  enemy,  now  confined  to  New  York  and 
Charleston,  ceased;  and  Washington  made  no  ef 
forts  to  dislodge  the  foe,  for  the  war  had  really 
ended. 

In  the  summer  of  1782  Richard  Oswald  was 
sent  by  Parliament  to  Paris.  The  object  of  his 
mission  was  to  confer  with  Franklin  and  Jay,  the 
ambassadors  of  the  United  States,  in  regard  to 
the  terms  of  peace.  Before  the  discussions  were 
ended,  John  Adams,  arriving  from  Amsterdam, 
and  Henry  Laurens  from  London,  entered  into 
the  negotiations.  On  the  3Oth  of  November  pre 
liminary  articles  of  peace  were  agreed  to  and 
signed  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  by  Oswald,  and 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States  by  Franklin,  Adams, 
Jay,  and  Laurens.  In  the  following  April  the 
terms  were  ratified  by  Congress;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  3d  of  September,  1783,  that  a  final  treaty 
was  effected  between  all  the  nations  that  had  been 
at  war.  On  that  day  the  ambassadors  of  Holland, 
Spain,  England,  France,  and  the  United  States,  in 
a  solemn  conference  at  Paris,  agreed  to  and  signed 
the  articles  of  a  permanent  peace. 

The  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  1783  were  briefly 
these:  A  full  and  complete  recognition  of  the  in 
dependence  of  the  United  States ;  the  recession  by 
Great  Britain  of  Florida  to  Spain;  the  surrender 
of  all  the  remaining  territory  east  of  the  Mississ 
ippi  and  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  United 
States;  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  and 


464  History  of  the  United  States 

the  lakes  by  American  vessels;  the  concession  of 
mutual  rights  in  the  Newfoundland  fisheries;  and 
the  retention  by  Great  Britain  of  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia,  with  the  exclusive  control  of  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

Early  in  August,  Sir  Guy  Carleton  received  in 
structions  to  evacuate  New  York  City.  Three 
months  were  spent  in  making  arrangements  for 
this  important  event.  Finally,  on  the  25th  of  No 
vember,  everything  was  in  readiness;  the  British 
army  was  embarked  on  board  the  fleet;  the  sails 
were  spread ;  the  ships  stood  out  to  sea ;  dwindled 
to  white  specks  on  the  horizon;  disappeared.  The 
Briton  was  gone.  After  the  struggles  and  sacri 
fices  of  an  eight  years'  war  the  patriots  had 
achieved  the  independence  of  their  country.  The 
United  States  of  America  took  an  equal  station 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Nine  days  after  Carleton's  departure  there  was 
a  most  affecting  scene  in  the  city.  Washington  as 
sembled  his  officers  and  bade  them  a  final  adieu. 
When  they  were  met,  the  chieftain  spoke  a  few 
affectionate  words  to  his  comrades,  who  came  for 
ward  in  turn  and  with  tears  and  sobs  which  the 
veterans  no  longer  cared  to  conceal  bade  him  fare 
well.  Washington  then  walked  to  Whitehall,  fol 
lowed  by  a  vast  concourse  of  citizens  and  soldiers, 
and  thence  departed  to  Annapolis,  where  Congress 
was  in  session.  On  his  way  he  paused  at  Phila 
delphia  and  made  to  the  proper  officers  a  report 
of  his  expenses  during  the  war.  The  account  was 
in  his  own  handwriting,  and  covered  a  total  ex- 


Confederation  and  Union  465 

penditure  of  seventy-four  thousand  four  hundred 
and  eighty-five  dollars — all  correct  to  a  cent.  The 
route  of  the  chief  from  Paulus's  Hook  to  An 
napolis  was  a  continuous  triumph.  The  people  by 
hundreds  and  thousands  flocked  to  the  villages 
and  roadsides  to  see  him  pass;  gray-headed  states 
men  to  speak  words  of  praise ;  young  men  to  shout 
with  enthusiasm;  maidens  to  strew  his  way  with 
flowers. 

On  the  23d  of  December,  Washington  was  in 
troduced  to  Congress.  To  that  body  of  patriotic 
sages  he  delivered  an  address  full  of  feeling,  wis 
dom,  and  modesty.  Then  with  that  dignity  which 
always  marked  his  conduct  he  surrendered  his  com 
mission  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  American 
army.  General  Mifflin,  the  president  of  Congress, 
responded  in  an  eloquent  manner,  and  then  the 
hero  retired  to  his  home  at  Mount  Vernon.  The 
man  whom,  the  year  before,  some  disaffected  sol 
diers  were  going  to  make  king  of  America,  now, 
by  his  own  act,  became  a  citizen  of  the  Republic. 


CHAPTER  IX 

CONFEDERATION  AND    UNION 

DURING  the  progress  of  the  Revolution  the  civil 
government  of  the  United  States  was  in  a  deplor 
able  condition.  Nothing  but  the  imminent  peril 
of  the  country  had,  in  the  first  place,  led  to  the 


466  History  of  the  United  States 

calling  of  a  Continental  Congress.  And  when 
that  body  assembled,  it  had  no  method  of  pro 
ceeding,  no  constitution,  no  power  of  efficient  ac 
tion.  The  two  great  wants  of  the  country  were 
money  to  carry  on  the  war  and  a  central  authority 
to  direct  the  war:  the  former  of  these  was  never 

met;  and  Washington 
was  made  to  supply  the 
latter.  Whenever  Con 
gress  would  move  in  the 
direction  of  a  firmer  gov 
ernment,  division  would 
spring  up,  and  action 
would  be  checked  by  the 
remonstrance  of  jealous 
"Old  Glory"  colonies.  Nevertheless, 

the  more  far-seeing  states 
men  of  the  times  labored  constantly  to  create  sub 
stantial  political  institutions. 

Foremost  of  all  those  who  worked  for  better 
government  was  Benjamin  Franklin.  As  early  as 
the  times  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  he  began 
to  agitate  the  question  of  a  permanent  union  of 
the  colonies.  During  the  troubled  years  just  pre 
ceding  the  Revolution  he  brooded  over  his  cher 
ished  project,  and  in  1775  laid  before  Congress 
the  plan  of  a  perpetual  confederation  of  the  States. 
But  the  attention  of  that  body  was  wholly  occu 
pied  with  the  stirring  events  of  the  day,  and  Frank 
lin's  measure  received  but  little  notice.  Congress, 
without  any  real  authority,  began  to  conduct  the 
government,  and  its  legislation  was  generally  ac- 


Confederation  and  Union  467 

cepted  by  the  States.  Still,  the  central  authority 
was  only  an  authority  by  sufferance,  and  was  liable 
at  any  time  to  be  annulled  by  the  caprice  of  State 
legislatures. 

Under  such  a  system  thinking  men  grew  rest 
less.  On  the  nth  of  June,  1776,  a  committee 
was  appointed  by  Congress  to  prepare  a  plan  of 
confederation.  After  a  month  the  work  was  com 
pleted  and  laid  before  the  house.  Another  month 
was  spent  in  fruitless  debates,  and  then  the  ques 
tion  was  laid  over  till  the  following  spring.  In 
April  of  1777  the  discussion  was  resumed,  and 
continued  through  the  summer.  Meanwhile,  the 
power  of  Great  Britain  being  overthrown,  the 
States  had  all  adopted  republican  governments, 
and  the  sentiment  of  national  union  had  made  con 
siderable  headway.  Finally,  on  the  I5th  of  No 
vember,  a  vote  was  taken  in  Congress,  and  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  reported  by  the  commit 
tee  were  adopted.  The  next  step  was  to  transmit 
the  articles  to  the  several  State  legislatures  for 
ratification.  The  time  thus  occupied  extended  to 
the  following  June,  and  then  the  new  frame  of 
government  was  returned  to  Congress  with 
many  amendments.  These  having  been  consid 
ered  and  the  most  serious  objections  removed, 
the  articles  were  signed  by  the  delegates  of  eight 
States  on  the  9th  of  July,  1778.  Later  in  the 
same  month  the  representatives  of  Georgia  and 
North  Carolina  affixed  their  signatures.  In  No 
vember  the  delegates  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  the 
following  February  those  of  Delaware,  signed  the 


468  History  of  the  United  States 

compact.  Maryland  held  aloof;  and  it  was  not 
until  March  of  1781  that  the  consent  of  that  com 
monwealth  could  be  obtained.  Several  of  the 
States,  especially  Maryland,  had  withheld  their 
ratification  on  account  of  the  troublesome  land 
question.  Seven  of  the  thirteen  States  laid  claim 
to  Western  lands,  based  chiefly  on  their  colonial 
charters  and  extending  to  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  States  not  having  such  claims  took  the  ground 
that  the  others  should  cede  these  lands  to  the  gen 
eral  government,  and  Maryland  refused  to  ratify 
the  Articles  until  they  promised  to  do  so.  Through 
the  cession  of  these  lands  the  government  came 
into  possession  of  a  vast  territory,  an  empire  in 
extent,  which,  as  a  common  possession,  became  a 
bond  of  union  of  inestimable  value. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  under  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  was  a  democratic  re 
public.  It  presented  itself  under  the  form  of  a 
Loose  Union  of  Independent  Commonwealths — a 
confederacy  of  sovereign  States.  The  executive 
and  legislative  powers  of  the  general  government 
were  vested  in  Congress — a  body  composed  of  not 
less  than  two  nor  more  than  seven  representatives 
from  each  State.  But  Congress  could  exercise  no 
other  than  delegated  powers;  the  sovereignty  was 
reserved  to  the  States.  The  most  important  of 
the  exclusive  privileges  of  Congress  were  the  right 
of  making  war  and  peace,  the  regulation  of  for 
eign  intercourse,  the  power  to  receive  and  send 
ambassadors,  the  control  of  the  coinage  of  money, 
the  settlement  of  disputed  boundaries,  and  the  care 


Confederation  and  Union  469 

of  the  public  domain.  But  there  were  most  seri 
ous  defects  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 
There  was  no  chief  executive  and  no  general 
judiciary.  Above  all,  Congress  had  no  power  to 
enforce  its  own  laws  and  the  national  government 
had  no  direct  relations  with  the  citizen.  Its  rela 
tions  were  with  the  State,  and  if  the  States  chose 
to  disregard  the  laws  of  Congress  there  was  no 
power  to  coerce  them.  The  consent  of  nine  States 
was  necessary  to  complete  an  act  of  legislation.  In 
voting  each  State  cast  a  single  ballot.  The  union 
of  the  States  was  declared  to  be  perpetual. 

On  the  day  of  the  ratification  of  the  articles  by 
Maryland  the  old  Congress  adjourned,  and  on 
the  following  morning  reassembled  under  the  new 
form  of  government.  From  the  very  first  the  in 
adequacy  of  that  government  was  manifest.  To 
begin  with,  it  contradicted  the  doctrines  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Congress  had  but 
a  shadow  of  authority,  and  that  shadow,  instead 
of  proceeding  from  the  people,  emanated  from 
States  which  were  declared  to  be  sovereign  and 
independent.  The  first  great  duty  of  the  new  gov 
ernment  was  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  the 
war  debt,  which  had  now  reached  the  sum  of  thirty- 
eight  million  dollars.  Congress  could  only  recom 
mend  to  the  several  States  the  levying  of  a  suffi 
cient  tax  to  meet  the  indebtedness.  Some  of  the 
States  made  the  required  levy;  others  were  dilatory; 
others  refused.  At  the  very  outset  the  govern 
ment  was  balked  and  thwarted.  The  serious  trou 
bles  that  attended  the  disbanding  of  the  army  were 


47°  History  of  the  United  States 

traceable  rather  to  the  inability  than  to  the  indis 
position  of  Congress  to  pay  the  soldiers.  The 
princely  fortune  of  Robert  Morris  was  exhausted 
and  himself  brought  to  poverty  in  a  vain  effort 
to  sustain  the  credit  of  the  government.  For  three 
years  after  the  treaty  of  peace  public  affairs  were 
in  a  condition  bordering  on  chaos.  The  imperiled 
state  of  the  Republic  was  viewed  with  alarm  by  the 
sagacious  patriots  who  had  carried  the  Revolution 
to  a  successful  issue.  It  was  seen  that  unless  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  could  be  replaced  with 
a  better  system  the  nation  would  go  to  ruin. 

The  project  of  remodeling  the  government  origi 
nated  at  Mount  Vernon.  In  1785,  Washington, 
in  conference  with  a  company  of  statesmen  at  his 
home,  advised  the  calling  of  a  convention  to  meet 
at  Annapolis  in  the  following  year.  The  propo 
sition  was  received  with  favor;  and  in  September 
of  1786  twelve  representatives  of  five  States  as 
sembled.  Since  only  a  minority  of  the  States  were 
represented  in  the  conference,  it  was  resolved  to 
adjourn  until  May  of  the  following  year,  and  all 
the  States  were  urgently  requested  to  send  repre 
sentatives  at  that  time.  Congress  also  invited  the 
several  legislatures  to  appoint  delegates  to  the 
proposed  convention.  All  of  the  States  except 
Rhode  Island  responded  to  the  call;  and  on  the 
second  Monday  in  May,  1787,  the  representatives 
assembled  at  Philadelphia.  Washington,  who  was 
a  delegate  from  Virginia,  was  chosen  president 
of  the  convention.  After  some  discussion  it  was 
decided  to  set  aside  the  Articles  and  frame  a  new 


Confederation  and  Union  471 

Constitution.  Edmund  Randolph,  a  delegate  from 
Virginia,  offered  a  plan  of  government  which 
came  to  be  known  as  the  Virginia  plan.  Ijt  pro 
vided  for  such  radical  changes  as  giving  Congress 
full  power  over  foreign  and  interstate  commerce, 
power  to  tax  and  to  enforce  its  own  laws,  and 
it  made  the  individual  citizen  amenable  to  national 
laws,  as  well  as  to  those  of  his  State.  This  plan 
was  long  debated  and  after  many  modifications  it 
was  adopted  and  became  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  The  convention  finished  its  great 
work  on  the  I7th  of  September  and  sent  the  newly 
framed  document  to  the  various  States  to  be 
ratified. 

Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  the 
powers  of  government  are  arranged  under  three 
heads — Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  Congress — a  body 
composed  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa 
tives.  The  members  of  the  Senate  are  chosen  by 
the  legislatures  of  the  several  States,  and  serve 
for  a  period  of  six  years.  Each  State  is  repre 
sented  by  two  Senators.  The  members  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  are  elected  by  the  peo 
ple  of  the  respective  States;  and  each  State  is  en 
titled  to  a  number  of  representatives  proportion 
ate  to  the  population  of  that  State.  The  members 
of  this  branch  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
Congress  is  the  lawmaking  power  of  the  nation; 
and  all  legislative  questions  of  a  general  character 
are  the  appropriate  subjects  of  congressional 
action. 


472  History  of  the  United  States 

The  executive  power  of  the  United  States  is 
vested  in  a  President,  who  is  chosen  for  a  period 
of  four  years  by  a  body  of  men  called  the  electoral 
college.  The  electors  composing  the  college  are 
chosen  by  the  people  of  the  several  States;  and 
each  State  is  entitled  to  a  number  of  electors  equal 
to  the  number  of  its  representatives  and  senators 
in  Congress.  The  duty  of  the  President  is  to  en 
force  the  laws  of  Congress  in  accordance  with  the 
Constitution.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
armies  and  navies  of  the  United  States.  Over  the 
legislation  of  Congress  he  has  the  power  of  veto; 
but  a  two-thirds  congressional  majority  may  pass 
a  law  without  the  President's  consent.  He  has  the 
right  of  appointing  cabinet  officers  and  foreign 
ministers;  but  all  of  his  appointments  must  be  ap 
proved  by  the  Senate.  The  treaty-making  power 
is  also  lodged  with  the  President;  but  here  again 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  is  necessary.  In 
case  of  the  death,  resignation,  or  removal  of  the 
President,  the  Vice-President  becomes  chief  magis 
trate  ;  otherwise  his  duties  are  limited  to  presiding 
over  the  Senate. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  is 
vested  in  a  supreme  court  and  in  inferior  courts 
established  by  Congress.  The  highest  judicial  offi 
cer  is  the  chief-justice.  All  the  judges  of  the  su 
preme  and  inferior  courts  hold  their  offices  during 
life  or  good  behavior.  The  jurisdiction  of  these 
courts  extends  to  all  causes  arising  under  the  Con 
stitution,  la\vs,  and  treaties  of  the  United  States. 
The  right  of  trial  by  jury  is  granted  in  all  cases 


Confederation  and  Union  473 

except  the  impeachment  of  public  officers.  Trea 
son  against  the  United  States  consists  only  in  levy 
ing  war  against  them,  or  in  giving  aid  and  comfort 
to  their  enemies. 

The  Constitution  further  provides  that  full  faith 
shall  be  given  in  all  the  States  to  the  records  of 
every  State;  that  the  citizens  of  any  State  shall 
be  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  citizens  in  all  the 
States;  that  new  Territories  may  be  organized  and 
new  States  admitted  into  the  Union ;  that  to  every 
State  shall  be  guaranteed  a  republican  form  of 
government;  and  that  the  Constitution  may  be 
altered  or  amended  whenever  the  same  is  pro 
posed  by  a  two-thirds  majority  of  both  houses  of 
Congress  and  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the  legis 
latures  of  the  several  States.  In  accordance  with 
this  last  provision  fifteen  amendments  have  been 
made  to  the  Constitution.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  articles  which  guarantee  religious  free 
dom  ;  change  the  method  of  electing  President  and 
Vice-President ;  abolish  slavery;  and  forbid  abridg 
ment  of  suffrage  on  account  of  race  or  color. 

On  the  question  of  adopting  the  Constitution 
the  people  were  divided.  It  was  the  first  great 
political  agitation  in  the  country.  Those  who  fa 
vored  the  new  frame  of  government  were  called 
Federalists;  those  who  opposed,  Anti-Federalists. 
The  leaders  of  the  former  party  were  Washington, 
Jay,  Madison,  and  Hamilton,  the  latter  statesman 
throwing  the  whole  force  of  his  genius  and  learn 
ing  into  the  controversy.  In  those  able  papers 
called  the  Federalist  he  and  Madison  successfully 


474  History  of  the  United  States 

answered  every  objection  of  the  anti-Federal  party. 
Hamilton  was  the  first  and  perhaps  the  greatest 
expounder  of  constitutional  liberty  in  America. 
To  him  the  Republic  owes  a  debt  of  perpetual 
gratitude  for  having  established  on  a  firm  and  en 
during  basis  the  true  principles 
of  free  government. 

Before  the  end  of  1788  eleven 
of  the  States  had  adopted  the 
Constitution.  By  its  own  terms 
the  new  government  was  to  go 
into  operation  when  nine  States 
should  ratify.  For  a  while  North 
Carolina  and  Rhode  Island  hesi 
tated,  but  their  consent  was 
Alexander  Hamilton  finallY  obtained.  In  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  Con 
stitution  and  a  resolution  of  Congress,  the  first 
Wednesday  of  January,  1789,  was  named  as  the 
time  for  the  election  of  a  chief  magistrate.  The 
people  had  but  one  voice  as  to  the  man  who  should 
be  honored  with  that  high  trust.  Early  in  April 
the  ballots  of  the  electors  were  counted  in  the  pres 
ence  of  Congress,  and  George  Washington  was 
unanimously  chosen  President  and  John  Adams 
Vice- President  of  the  United  States.  On  the  I4th 
of  the  month  Washington  received  notification  of 
his  election,  and  departed  for  New  York.  His 
route  thither  was  a  constant  triumph.  With  thk 
auspicious  event  the  period  of  revolution  and  con 
federation  ends,  and  the  era  of  nationality  in  the 
New  Republic  is  ushered  in. 


PART  V 
NATIONAL  PERIOD 

A.D.    1789-1884 


CHAPTER  I 

WASHINGTON'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1789-1797 

ON  the  3Oth  of  April,  1789,  Washington  was  duly 
inaugurated  first  President  of  the  United  States. 
The  new  government  was  to  have  gone  into  opera 
tion  on  the  4th  of  March,  but  the  event  was  con 
siderably  delayed.  The  inaugural  ceremony  was 
performed  on  the  balcony  of  the  old  Federal  Hall, 
on  the  corner  of  Broad  and  Wall  streets.  Chancel 
lor  Livingston  of  New  York  administered  the  oath 
of  office.  The  streets  and  house-tops  were  thronged 
with  people;  flags  fluttered;  cannon  boomed  from 
the  Battery.  As  soon  as  the  public  ceremony  was 
ended,  Washington  retired  to  the  Senate  chamber 
and  delivered  his  inaugural  address.  The  organ- 

475 


History  of  the  United  States 

ization  of  the  two  houses  of  Congress  had  already 
been  effected. 

The  new  government  was  embarrassed  with 
many  difficulties.  The  opponents  of  the  Consti 
tution  were  not  yet  silenced,  and  from  the  begin- 


Washington  Taking  the  Oath  of   Office 

ning  they  caviled  at  the  measures  of  the  adminis 
tration.  By  the  treaty  of  1783  the  free  naviga 
tion  of  the  Mississippi  had  been  guaranteed.  Now 
the  jealous  Spaniards  of  New  Orleans  hindered 
the  passage  of  American  ships.  The  people  of  the 


Washington's  Administration  477 

West  looked  to  the  great  river  as  the  natural  out 
let  of  their  commerce;  they  must  be  protected  in 
their  rights.  On  many  parts  of  the  frontier  the 
malignant  Red  men  were  still  at  war  with  the  set 
tlers.  As  to  financial  credit,  the  United  States  had 
none.  In  the  very  beginning  of  his  arduous  duties 
Washington  was  prostrated  with  sickness,  and  the 
business  of  government  was  for  many  weeks 
delayed. 

Not  until  September  were  the  first  important 
measures  adopted.  On  the  loth  of  that  month 
an  act  was  passed  by  Congress  instituting  a  depart 
ment  of  foreign  affairs,  a  treasury  department,  and 
a  department  of  war.  As  members  of  his  cabinet 
Washington  nominated  Jefferson,  Knox,  and  Ham 
ilton;  the  first  as  secretary  of  foreign  affairs;  the 
second,  of  war;  and  the  third,  of  the  treasury.  In 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  a  supreme  court  was  also  organized,  John 
Jay  receiving  the  appointment  of  first  chief-justice. 
Edmund  Randolph  was  chosen  attorney-general. 
Many  constitutional  amendments  were  now 
brought  forward.  Seven  of  the  States  on  ratify 
ing  the  Constitution  proposed  various  amendments. 
One  of  the  main  defects  of  that  instrument  was 
that  it  did  not  guarantee  enough  personal  liberty. 
These  suggested  amendments  were  resolved  into 
a  Bill  of  Rights  and  on  their  adoption  became  the 
first  ten  amendments.  By  this  action  on  the  part 
of  Congress,  the  objections  of  North  Carolina  and 
Rhode  Island  were  removed  and  both  States  rati 
fied  the  Constitution,  the  former  in  Novem- 


478  History  of  the  United  States 

ber  of  1789  and  the  latter  in  the  following 
May. 

The  national  debt  was  the  greatest  and  most 
threatening  question;  but  the  genius  of  Hamilton 
triumphed  over  every  difficulty.  The  indebted 
ness  of  the  United  States,  including  the  revolution 
ary  expenses  of  the  several  States,  amounted  to 
nearly  eighty  million  dollars.  Hamilton  adopted 
a  broad  and  honest  policy.  His  plan,  which  was 
laid  before  Congress  at  the  beginning  of  the  sec 
ond  session,  proposed  that  the  debt  of  the  United 
States  due  to  American  citizens,  as  well  as  the  war 
debt  of  the  individual  States,  should  be  assumed 
by  the  general  government,  and  that  all  should  be 
fully  paid.  By  this  measure  the  credit  of  the  coun 
try  was  vastly  improved,  even  before  actual  pay 
ment  was  begun.  As  a  means  of  augmenting  the 
revenues  of  the  government,  a  duty  was  laid  on 
the  tonnage  of  merchant-ships,  with  a  discrimina 
tion  in  favor  of  American  vessels;  and  customs 
were  levied  on  all  imported  articles.  Hamilton's 
financial  schemes  were  violently  opposed  by  Mr. 
Jefferson  and  his  party.  The  assumption  of  the 
State  debts  was  especially  galling  to  the  advocates 
of  State  sovereignty.  The  States,  jealous  of  their 
power,  thought  the  taking  over  of  their  Revolu 
tionary  debts  would  rob  them  of  some  of  their 
rights  and  would  subordinate  them  too  completely 
to  the  general  government.  But  his  policy  pre 
vailed,  and  the  credit  of  the  government  was  soon 
firmly  established. 

The  proposition   to   assume   the  debts  of  the 


Washington's  Administration  479 

States  had  been  coupled  with  another  to  fix  the  seat 
of  government.  It  was  deemed  wise  to  locate  the 
National  Capital  where  it  would  be  free  from  the 
control  of  any  State  and  could  be  under  the  sole 
jurisdiction  of  the  federal  government.  Both  sec 
tions  of  the  country  wished  to  possess  the  capital 
of  their  country.  The  matter  was  settled  by  a 
trade  and  a  compromise.  Jefferson  yielded  the 
point  on  the  assumption  of  the  State  debts,  in  re 
turn  for  which  the  capital  city  should  be  located, 
after  it  should  remain  at  Philadelphia  for  ten 
years,  at  some  point  on  the  Potomac. 

In  the  autumn  of  1790  a  war  broke  out  with 
the  Miami  Indians.  Fort  Washington,  on  the 
present  site  of  Cincinnati,  had  been  established 
as  the  capital  of  the  Northwestern  Territory;  and 
General  St.  Clair  had  received  the  appointment 
as  governor.  The  Indians  had  fairly  relinquished 
their  rights  to  the  surrounding  country;  but  other 
tribes  came  forward  with  pretended  claims,  and 
went  to  war  to  recover  their  lost  possessions.  At 
the  close  of  September,  General  Harmar,  with 
fourteen  hundred  troops,  set  out  from  Fort  Wash 
ington  to  chastise  the  hostile  Miamis.  After  de 
stroying  several  villages  and  wasting  the  country  as 
far  as  the  Maumee,  he  divided  his  army  into  de 
tachments.  Colonel  Hardin,  who  commanded  the 
Kentucky  volunteers,  was  ambuscaded  and  his 
forces  routed  at  a  village  eleven  miles  from  Fort 
Wayne;  and  on  the  2ist  of  October  the  main  di 
vision  was  defeated  with  great  loss  at  the  Mau 
mee  Ford.  General  Harmar  was  obliged  to 


480  History  of  the  United  States 

abandon  the  Indian  country  and  retreat  to  Fort 
Washington. 

In  the  beginning  of  1791  an  act  was  passed  by 
Congress  establishing  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States.  The  measure  originated  with  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  and  was  violently  opposed  by  Jef 
ferson  and  the  anti-federal  party.  The  opposition 
was  based  on  the  idea  that  the  federal  government 
had  no  constitutional  right  to  establish  such  an 
institution.  This  gave  rise  to  the  question  as  to 
how  the  Constitution  should  be  interpreted.  Ham 
ilton  and  his  followers  promulgated  what  is 
known  as  the  loose  construction  theory.  Jefferson 
held  that  since  the  Constitution  did  not  specifically 
empower  the  government  to  organize  such  a  bank, 
it  had  no  right  so  to  do.  Hamilton  on  the  other 
hand  maintained  that  while  it  did  not  say  so  in  so 
many  words,  yet  it  was  implied  in  the  general  wel 
fare  clause  of  that  instrument.  The  Bank  was 
to  have  a  capital  of  $10,000,000,  one-fifth  to  be 
owned  by  the  government.  It  was  to  furnish  a 
circulating  medium  to  the  people  and  loan  the 
government  money  when  needed.  It  was  char 
tered  for  twenty  years. 

About  the  same  time  Vermont,  which  had  been 
an  independent  territory  since  1777,  adopted  the 
Constitution,  and  on  the  i8th  of  February  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  the  fourteenth  State. 
The  claim  of  New  York  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
province  had  been  purchased,  two  years  previously, 
for  thirty  thousand  dollars.  The  first  census  of 
the  United  States,  completed  for  the  year  1790, 


Washington's  Administration  481 

showed  that  the  population  of  the  country  had 
increased  to  three  million  nine  hundred  and  twenty- 
nine  thousand  souls. 

After  the  defeat  of  Harmar  the  government 
adopted  more  vigorous  measures  for  the  repres 
sion  of  Indian  hostilities.  On  the  6th  of  Septem 
ber,  1791,  General  St.  Clair,  with  an  army  of  two 
thousand  men,  set  out  from  Fort  Washington  to 
break  the  power  of  the  Miami  confederacy.  On 
the  night  of  November  jd  he  reached  a  point 
nearly  a  hundred  miles  north  of  Fort  Washington, 
and  encamped  on  one  of  the  upper  tributaries  of 
the  Wabash,  in  what  is  now  the  southwest  angle 
of  Mercer  county,  Ohio.  On  the  following  morn 
ing  at  sunrise  his  camp  was  suddenly  assailed  by 
more  than  two  thousand  warriors,  led  by  Little 
Turtle  and  several  American  renegades  who  had 
joined  the  Indians.  After  a  terrible  battle  of  three 
hours'  duration,  St.  Clair  was  completely  defeated, 
with  a  loss  of  fully  half  his  men.  The  fugitive 
militia  retreated  precipitately  to  Fort  Washington, 
where  they  arrived  four  days  after  the  battle.  The 
news  of  the  disaster  spread  gloom  and  sorrow 
throughout  the  land.  St.  Clair,  overwhelmed  with 
censures  and  reproaches,  was  superseded  by  Gen 
eral  Wayne,  whom  the  people  had  named  Mad 
Anthony. 

The  population  of  the  Territory  of  Kentucky 
had  now  reached  seventy-three  thousand.  Only 
seventeen  years  before,  Daniel  Boone,  the  hardy 
hunter  of  North  Carolina,  had  settled  with  his 
companions  at  Boonesborough.  Harrodsburg  and 


482  History  of  the  United  States 

Lexington  were  founded  about  the  same  time. 
During  the  Revolution  the  pioneers  were  constantly 
beset  by  the  savages.  After  the  expedition  of  Gen 
eral  Clarke,  in  1779,  the  frontier  was  more  secure; 
and  in  the  years  following  the  treaty  thousands  of 
immigrants  came  annually.  In  the  meantime,  Vir 
ginia  had  relinquished  her  claim  to  the  territory; 
and  on  the  ist  of  June,  1792,  Kentucky  was  ad 
mitted  into  the  Union.  At  the  presidential  elec 
tion,  held  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  Wash 
ington  was  again  unanimously  chosen;  as  Vice- 
President,  John  Adams  was  also  re-elected. 

During  Washington's  second  administration  the 
country  was  greatly  troubled  in  its  relations  with 
foreign  governments.  Europe  was  in  an  uproar. 
The  French  Revolution  of  1789  was  still  running 
its  dreadful  course.  After  three  years  of  unpar 
alleled  excesses,  the  Jacobins  of  France  had  be 
headed  the  king  and  abolished  the  monarchy. 
Citizen  Genet  was  sent  by  the  new  French  republic 
as  minister  to  the  United  States.  On  his  arrival 
at  Charleston,  and  on  his  way  to  Philadelphia,  he 
was  greeted  with  unbounded  enthusiasm.  Taking 
advantage  of  his  popularity,  the  ambassador  began 
to  abuse  his  authority,  fitted  out  privateers  to  prey 
on  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  planned  expedi 
tions  against  Louisiana,  and,  although  the  Presi 
dent  had  already  issued  a  proclamation  of  neu 
trality,  demanded  an  alliance  with  the  government. 
Washington  and  the  cabinet  firmly  refused;  and  the 
audacious  minister  threatened  to  appeal  to  the  peo 
ple.  In  this  outrageous  conduct  he  was  sustained 


Washington's  Administration  483 

arid  encouraged  by  the  anti-Federal  party,  and  for 
a  while  the  government  was  endangered.  But 
Washington  stood  unmoved,  declared  the  course 
of  the  French  minister  an  insult  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  United  States,  and  demanded  his  recall. 
The  republican  authorities  of  France  heeded  the 
demand,  and  Genet  was  superseded  by  M.  Fouchet. 
During  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1794  the 
country  was  much  disturbed  by  a  difficulty  in  West 
ern  Pennsylvania,  known  as  the  whiskey  insurrec 
tion.  The  farmers  of  this  section  were  so  far 
removed  from  the  markets  that  it  was  next  to  im 
possible  for  them  to  dispose  of  their  surplus  grain. 
To  manufacture  it  into  whiskey  was  an  easy  and 
profitable  way  of  marketing  it.  Congress,  hoping 
to  improve  the  revenues  of  the  government,  had, 
three  years  previously,  imposed  a  tax  on  all  ardent 
spirits  distilled  in  the  United  States.  While  Genet 
was  at  Philadelphia,  he  and  his  partisans  incited 
the  people  of  the  distilling  regions  to  resist  the 
tax-collectors.  The  disaffected  rose  in  arms. 
Washington  issued  two  proclamations,  warning 
the  insurgents  to  disperse;  but  instead  of  obeying, 
they  fired  upon  and  captured  the  officers  of  the 
government.  The  President  then  ordered  General 
Henry  Lee  to  enter  the  rebellious  district  with  a 
sufficient  force  to  restore  order  and  enforce  the 
law.  When  the  troops  reached  the  scene  of  the 
disturbance,  the  rioters  had  already  scattered.  The 
insurrection  was  a  political  rather  than  a  social 
outbreak:  the  anti-Federalists  were  in  a  majority 
in  the  distilling  region,  and  the  whiskey-tax  was  a 


484  History  of  the  United  States 

measure  of  the  Federal  party.  The  result  of  this 
insurrection  was  beneficial  to  the  nation.  It  was 
the  first  time  the  new  government  had  been  put 
to  the  task  of  enforcing  its  own  laws.  It  was  still 
on  trial.  The  Constitution  had  not  passed  beyond 
its  experimental  stage.  But  the  prompt  and  vig 
orous  action  of  Washington  showed  that  the  fed 
eral  government  had  power,  and  it  consequently 
rose  in  the  respect  and  estimation  of  the  people. 

Meanwhile,  General  Wayne  had  broken  the  Mi 
ami  confederacy.  In  the  fall  of  1793  he  entered 
the  Indian  country  with  a  force  of  three  thousand 
men.  Reaching  the  scene  of  St.  Clair's  defeat, 
he  built  a  stockade  named  Fort  Recovery,  and  then 
pressed  on  to  the  junction  of  the  Au  Glaize  and 
the  Maumee,  in  Defiance  county,  Ohio.  Here  he 
built  and  garrisoned  Fort  Defiance.  Descending 
the  Maumee  to  the  rapids,  he  sent  proposals  of 
peace  to  the  Indians,  who  were  in  council  but  a 
few  miles  distant.  Little  Turtle,  more  wise  than 
the  other  chiefs,  would  have  made  a  treaty;  but 
the  majority  were  for  battle.  On  the  2Oth  of 
August,  1794,  Wayne  marched  against  the  sav 
ages,  overtook  them  at  Fallen  Timbers  on  the 
Maumee,  and  routed  them  with  terrible  losses. 
The  relentless  general  then  compelled  the  hum 
bled  chieftains  to  purchase  peace  by  ceding  to  the 
United  States  all  the  territory  east  of  a  line  drawn 
from  Fort  Recovery  to  the  mouth  of  the  Great 
Miami  River.  This  was  the  last  service  of  Gen 
eral  Wayne.  Remaining  for  a  while  in  the  Indian 
country,  he  embarked  on  Lake  Erie  to  return  to 


Washington's  Administration  485 

Philadelphia.     In  December  of  1796  he  died  on 
board  the  vessel,  and  was  buried  at  Presque  Isle. 

The  conduct  of  Great  Britain  toward  the  United 
States  became  as  arrogant  as  that  of  France  was 
impudent.  In  November  of  1793  George  III. 
issued  secret  instructions  to  British  privateers  to 
seize  all  neutral  vessels  that  might  be  found  trad 
ing  in  the  French  West  Indies.  The  United  States 
had  no  notification  of  this  high-handed  measure; 
and  American  commerce  to  the  value  of  many  mil 
lions  of  dollars  was  swept  from  the  sea  by  a  proc 
ess  differing  in  nothing  from  highway  robbery. 
But  for  the  temperate  spirit  of  the  government 
the  country  would  have  been  at  once  plunged  into 
war.  Prudence  prevailed  over  passion;  and  in 
May  of  1794  Chief- Justice  Jay  was  sent  as  envoy 
extraordinary  to  demand  redress  of  the  British 
government.  The  sending  of  Jay  to  negotiate  the 
treaty  was  bitterly  resented  by  the  anti-Federalists, 
or  Republicans,  as  they  were  now  beginning  to  be 
called.  It  was  thought  that  Jay  because  of  his 
strong  British  sympathies  would  not  secure  from 
that  nation  the  best  possible  bargain.  While  the 
result  was  not  what  could  be  desired,  yet  it  was 
no  doubt  all  that  was  possible  to  get  at  that  time 
and  it  was  far  preferable  to  war.  Even  Hamilton, 
a  Federalist  of  the  Federalists,  characterized  it  as 
an  old  woman's  treaty.  The  United  States  had 
certainly  fared  ill  in  the  deal.  To  accept  it  re 
quired  considerable  humility  on  the  part  of  the 
Americans.  Not  until  June  of  1795  were  the  terms 
of  settlement  ratified  by  the  Senate  and  signed  by 


486  History  of  the  United  States 

the  President.  It  was  specified  in  the  treaty  that 
Great  Britain  should  make  ample  reparation  for 
the  injuries  done  by  her  privateers,  and  surrender 
to  the  United  States  certain  Western  posts  which 
until  now  had  been  held  by  English  garrisons. 

As  was  to  be  expected  there  was  a  justifiable  out 
cry  against  it.  Jay  was  bitterly  denounced.  In 
Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia  indignation 
meetings  were  held.  While  Washington  himself 
did  not  approve  of  the  treaty,  yet  he  signed  it. 
This  act  caused  the  Republican  press  unmercifully 
to  assail  him. 

Since  an  appropriation  was  necessary  to  carry 
into  effect  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  the  House  of 
Representatives  had  the  right  to  say  if  such  ap 
propriations  should  be  made  or  not.  This  branch 
of  Congress  was  Republican  by  a  small  majority 
and  there  was  considerable  doubt  if  the  measure 
could  pass.  The  debate  lasted  for  weeks.  Emi 
nent  men  spoke  on  either  side.  But  the  one  great 
speech,  not  only  of  the  occasion,  but  one  that  de 
serves  a  high  place  among  the  great  American  ora 
tions,  was  delivered  in  favor  of  the  treaty  by  Fisher 
Ames,  of  Massachusetts.  Ames  was  an  invalid 
and  he  had  risen  from  a  sick  bed,  against  the  ad 
vice  of  his  physician,  and  in  spite  of  his  frail  con 
dition  for  three  hours  poured  forth  in  burning 
eloquence  an  appeal  for  the  passage  of  the  bill.  It 
had  the  desired  effect,  and  when  the  vote  was 
taken  it  was  found  that  instead  of  being  defeated 
by  six  votes  as  was  expected,  it  had  carried  by 
three. 


Washington  s  Administration  487 

In  October  of  1795  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Louisiana  was  settled  by  a  treaty 
with  Spain.  The  latter  country  at  the  same  time 
guaranteed  to  the  Americans  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Mississippi.  Less  honorable  was  the  treaty 
made  with  the  kingdom  of  Algiers.  For  a  long 
time  Algerine  pirates  had  infested  the  Mediter 
ranean,  preying  upon  the  commerce  of  civilized 
nations ;  and  those  nations,  in  order  to  purchase 
exemption  from  such  ravages,  had  adopted  the 
ruinous  policy  of  paying  the  dey  of  Algiers  an 
annual  tribute.  In  consideration  of  the  tribute 
the  dey  agreed  that  his  pirate  ships  should  con 
fine  themselves  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  should 
not  attack  the  vessels  of  such  nations  as  made  the 
payment.  Now,  however,  with  the  purpose  of 
injuring  France,  Great  Britain  winked  at  an  agree 
ment  with  the  dey  by  which  the  Algerine  sea-rob 
bers  were  turned  loose  on  the  Atlantic.  By  their 
depredations  American  commerce  suffered  greatly; 
and  the  government  of  the  United  States  was 
obliged  to  purchase  safety  by  paying  the  shameful 
tribute. 

In  the  summer  of  1796,  Tennessee,  the  third  new 
State,  was  organized  and  admitted  into  the  Union. 
Six  years  previously  North  Carolina  had  surren 
dered  her  claims  to  the  territory,  which  at  that 
time  contained  a  population  of  thirty-five  thousand; 
and  within  five  years  the  number  was  more  than 
doubled.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Tennessee  were 
of  that  hardy  race  of  pioneers  to  whom  the  perils 
of  the  wilderness  are  as  nothing,  provided  the  wil- 


488  History  of  the  United  States 

derness  is  free.  By  the  addition  of  the  two  States 
southwest  of  the  Ohio  more  than  eighty-three 
thousand  square  miles  of  territory  were  brought 
under  the  dominion  of  civilization. 

Washington  was  solicited  to  become  a  candidate 
for  a  third  election  to  the  presidency;  but  he  would 
not.  His  resolution  had  already  been  made  to  end 
his  public  career.  With  the  Father  of  his  Country 
the  evening  of  life  drew  on,  and  rest  was  neces 
sary.  Accordingly,  in  September  of  1796,  he 
issued  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  his  Fare 
well  Address — a  document  crowded  with  precepts 
of  political  wisdom,  prudent  counsels,  and  chas 
tened  patriotism.  As  soon  as  the  President's  de 
termination  was  made  known  the  political  parties 
marshaled  their  forces  and  put  forward  their 
champions,  John  Adams  appearing  as  the  candi 
date  of  the  Federal,  and  Thomas  Jefferson  of  the 
anti-Federal  party.  Antagonism  to  the  Constitu 
tion,  which  had  thus  far  been  the  chief  question 
between  the  parties,  now  gave  place  to  another  is 
sue — whether  it  was  the  true  policy  of  the  United 
States  to  enter  into  intimate  relations  with  the  re 
public  of  France.  The  anti-Federalists  said,  Yes! 
that  all  republics  have  a  common  end,  and  that 
Great  Britain  was  the  enemy  of  them  all.  The 
Federalists  said,  No!  that  the  American  republic 
must  mark  out  an  independent  course  among  the 
nations,  and  avoid  all  foreign  alliances.  On  that 
issue  Mr.  Adams  was  elected,  but  Mr.  Jefferson, 
having  the  next  highest  number  of  votes,  became 
Vice-President;  for  according  to  the  old  provision 


Adams's  Administration 


489 


of  the  Constitution,  the  person  who  stood  second 
on  the  list  was  declared  the  second  officer  in  the 
government. 


CHAPTER  II 

ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1797-1801 

ON  the  4th  of  March,  1797,  President  Adams  was 
inaugurated.  From  the  beginning  his  administra 
tion  was  embarrassed  by  a  powerful  and  well- 
organized  opposition.  Adet,  the  French  minister, 
made  inflammatory  appeals  to  the  people,  and 
urged  the  government  to  con 
clude  a  league  with  France 
against  Great  Britain.  When 
the  President  and  Congress 
stood  firmly  on  the  doctrine  of 
neutrality,  the  French  Direc 
tory  grew  insolent,  and  began 
to  demand  an  alliance.  The 
treaty  which  Mr.  Jay  had  con 
cluded  with  England  was  espe 
cially  complained  of  by  the 
partisans  of  France.  On  the 
loth  of  March  the  Directory 
issued  instructions  to  French 
men-of-war  to  assail  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States.  Soon  afterward  the  Federalist,  Mr.  Pinck- 
ney,  the  American  minister,  was  ordered  to  leave 
the  territory  of  France. 


John   Adams 
President   1797-1801 


490  History  of  the  United  States 

These  proceedings  were  equivalent  to  a  decla 
ration  of  war.  The  President  convened  Congress 
in  extraordinary  session,  and  measures  were  devised 
for  repelling  the  aggressions  of  the  French.  El- 
bridge  Gerry  and  John  Marshall  were  directed  to 
join  Mr.  Pinckney  in  a  final  effort  for  a  peaceable 
adjustment  of  the  difficulties.  But  the  effort  was 
fruitless.  The  Directory  of  France  refused  to  re 
ceive  the  ambassadors  except  upon  condition  that 
they  would  pledge  the  payment  into  the  French 
treasury  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  dollars.  It  is 
said  Pinckney  answered  with  the  declaration  that 
the  United  States  had  millions  for  defense,  but  not  a 
cent  for  tribute.  The  envoys  were  then  ordered  to 
leave  the  country;  but  Gerry,  who  was  an  anti- 
Federalist,  was  permitted  to  remain.  These  events 
occupied  the  summer  and  fall  of  1797.  The 
American  people  were  thoroughly  aroused.  The 
vigorous  recommendations  were  generally  ap 
proved.  The  very  strong  pro-France  faction  of 
the  country  was  either  silent  or  joined  enthusias 
tically  in  maintaining  American  honor  against  the 
insults  of  the  Directory.  The  war-spirit  ran  at 
high  tide.  Patriotic  songs  were  sung  and  speeches 
demanding  redress  were  everywhere  made.  War 
with  France  seemed  imminent. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  next  year  an  act  was 
passed  by  Congress  completing  the  organization  of 
the  army.  Washington  was  called  from  the  re 
tirement  of  his  old  age  and  appointed  commander- 
in-chief.  Hamilton  was  chosen  first  major-general. 
A  navy  of  six  frigates,  besides  privateers,  had  been 


Adams's  Administration  491 

provided  for  at  the  session  of  the  previous  year; 
and  a  national  loan  had  been  authorized.  The 
patriotism  of  the  people  was  thoroughly  aroused; 
the  treaties  with  France  were  declared  void,  and 
vigorous  preparations  were  made  for  the  impend 
ing  war.  The  American  frigates  put  to  sea,  and 
in  the  summer  and  fall  of  1799  did  good  service 
for  the  commerce  of  the  country.  Commodore 
Truxtun,  in  the  ship  Constellation,  won  distin 
guished  honors.  On  the  9th  of  February,  while 
cruising  in  the  West  Indies,  he  attacked  the  In 
surgent,  a  French  man-of-war  carrying  forty  guns 
and  more  than  four  hundred  seamen.  A  desperate 
engagement  ensued;  and  Truxtun,  though  inferior 
in  cannons  and  men,  gained  a  complete  victory.  A 
year  later  he  overtook  another  frigate,  called  the 
Vengeance,  and  after  a  five  hours'  battle  in  the 
night  would  have  captured  his  antagonist  but  for 
a  storm  and  the  darkness.  These  events  added 
greatly  to  the  renown  of  the  American  flag.  But 
the  Directory  of  France  had  come  to  its  last  days. 
In  the  waning  hours  of  its  power  it  expressed  a 
willingness  to  receive  an  American  minister.  Presi 
dent  Adams,  without  even  consulting  his  cabinet, 
proceeded  at  once  to  appoint  envoys. 

Meanwhile,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  had  over 
thrown  the  Directory  of  France  and  made  himself 
first  consul  of  the  republic.  More  wise  and  just 
than  his  associates,  he  was  eager  for  peace  with 
the  United  States.  The  proposals  were  met  with 
favor.  Three  American  ambassadors — Murray, 
Ellsworth,  and  Davie — reached  Paris,  after  many 


492  History  of  the  United  States 

delays,  in  the  beginning  of  March,  1800.  Nego 
tiations  were  at  once  opened,  and,  in  the  follow 
ing  September,  were  happily  terminated  with  a 
treaty  of  peace.  In  all  his  relations  with  the  United 
States,  Napoleon  acted  the  part  of  a  consistent  and 
honorable  ruler. 

Before  the  war-cloud  was  scattered  America  was 
called  to  mourn  the  loss  of  Washington.  On  the 
1 4th  of  December,  1799,  after  an  illness  of  only 
a  day,  the  venerated  chieftain  passed  from  among 
the  living.  All  hearts  were  touched  with  sorrow. 
The  people  put  on  the  garb  of  mourning.  Con 
gress  went  in  funeral  procession  to  the  German 
Lutheran  church,  where  General  Henry  Lee,  the 
personal  friend  of  Washington,  delivered  a 
touching  and  eloquent  oration.  Throughout  the 
civilized  world  the  memory  of  the  great  dead  was 
honored  with  appropriate  ceremonies.  To  the 
legions  of  France  the  event  was  announced  by 
Bonaparte,  who  paid  a  beautiful  tribute  to  the  vir 
tues  of  "  the  warrior,  the  legislator,  and  the  citi 
zen  without  reproach."  As  the  body  of  Washing 
ton  was  laid  in  the  sepulcher,  the  voice  of  partisan 
malignity  that  had  not  hesitated  to  assail  his  name 
was  hushed  into  everlasting  silence ;  and  the  world 
with  uncovered  head  agreed  with  Lord  Byron  in 
declaring  the  illustrious  dead  to  have  been  among 
warriors,  statesmen,  and  patriots 

" The  first,  the  last,  the  best, 

THE    ClNCINNATUS   OF   THE   WEST." 

The  administration  of  Adams  and  the  eight 
eenth  century  drew  to  a  close  together.  In  spite 


Adams's  Administration  493 

of  domestic  dissensions  and  foreign  alarms,  the 
new  republic  was  growing  strong  and  influential. 
The  census  of  1800  showed  that  the  population  of 
the  country,  including  the  black  men,  had  increased 
to  over  five  millions.  The  seventy-five  post-offices 
reported  by  the  census  of  1790  had  been  multiplied 
to  nine  hundred  and  three;  the  exports  of  the 
United  States  had  grown  from  twenty  millions  to 
nearly  seventy-one  millions  of  dollars.  The  per 
manency  of  the  Constitution  as  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land  was  now  cheerfully  recognized.  In 
December  of  1800  Congress  for  the  first  time  as 
sembled  in  Washington  city,  the  new  capital  of 
the  nation.  Virginia  and  Maryland  had  ceded  to 
the  United  States  the  District  of  Columbia,  a  tract 
ten  miles  square  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Poto 
mac;  but  the  part  given  by  Virginia  was  afterward 
re-ceded  to  that  State.  The  city  which  was  de 
signed  as  the  seat  of  government  was  laid  out  in 
1792;  and  in  1800  the  population  numbered  be 
tween  eight  and  nine  thousand. 

With  prudent  management  and  unanimity  the 
Federal  party  might  have  retained  control  of  the 
government.  But  there  were  dissensions  in  Mr. 
Adams's  cabinet.  He,  himself,  except  for  the  brief 
period  in  which  he  upheld  American  honor  against 
France,  had  not  been  popular.  His  method  of  re 
opening  negotiations  with  that  nation  when  the 
country  was  ripe  for  war  was  especially  odious  to 
his  party  and  it  was  split  in  twain.  At  this  day 
it  is  pretty  difficult  to  see  where  there  was  less 
genuine  statesmanship  displayed  in  trying  to  avoid 


494  History  of  the  United  States 

war  with  France  than  there  was  three  years  before 
in  accepting  the  Jay  Treaty  to  prevent  war  with 
England.  Much  of  the  recent  legislation  of  Con 
gress,  too,  had  been  unwise  and  unpopular.  The 
alien  law,  by  which  the  President  was  authorized 
to  send  out  of  the  country  any  foreigners  whose  pres 
ence  should  be  considered  prejudicial  to  the  inter 
ests  of  the  United  States,  was  specially  odious.  The 
sedition  law,  which  punished  with  fine  and  impris 
onment  the  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press 
when  directed  abusively  against  the  government, 
was  denounced  by  the  opposition  as  an  act  of 
tyranny.  Partisan  excitement  ran  high.  No  at 
tempt  to  enforce  the  alien  law  was  ever  made. 
But  in  order  to  muzzle  the  press,  editors  were  ar 
rested,  and  imprisoned  under  the  sedition  law  for 
printing  some  very  inconsequential  statements. 
There  was  much  justifiable  remonstrance  to  such 
high-handed  legislation.  But  as  is  usual  where 
party  spirit  runs  wild  many  things  are  done  that 
history  does  not  approve. 

These  laws  furnished  the  occasion  for  the 
famous  Kentucky  and  Virginia  Resolutions.  Jef 
ferson  was  the  author  of  the  first  and  Madison  of 
the  second.  But  at  the  time  and  for  many  years 
thereafter  the  authors  were  unknown.  The  resolu 
tions  condemned  unsparingly  the  alien  and  sedi 
tion  laws,  claimed  that  Congress  had  exceeded  its 
authority  in  passing  them,  and  proposed  the  very 
dangerous  doctrine  that  the  Constitution  is  only  a 
compact  between  the  States,  that  the  powers  of  the 
Federal  government  are  only  delegated  ones,  that 


Adams's  Administration  495 

the  States  have  a  right  to  judge  of  the  infractions 
of  the  United  States,  and  lastly  that  the  remedy  of 
such  infractions  was  nullification  by  the  States. 
Other  legislatures  condemned  these  resolutions, 
and  while  the  people  as  a  whole  did  not  approve  of 
them,  yet  they  served  to  arouse  a  feeling  against 
the  party  responsible  for  the  odious  measures.  The 
campaign  that  followed  was  a  bitter  one.  Mr. 
Adams  and  Mr.  Charles  C.  Pinckney  were  put  for 
ward  as  the  candidates  of  the  Federalists,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr  of  the  Repub 
licans  or  Democrats.  The  latter  were  triumphant. 
In  the  electoral  college  Jefferson  and  Burr  each  re 
ceived  seventy-three  votes;  Adams,  sixty-five;  and 
Pinckney,  sixty-four.  In  order  to  decide  between 
the  Democratic  candidates,  the  election  was  re 
ferred  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  Here  the 
influence  of  Hamilton  over  the  Federalists  was 
thrown  for  his  rival,  Jefferson.  "  I  cannot,"  he 
said,  "  remain  with  a  party  which  so  degrades  itself 
as  to  elect  Burr."  After  thirty-five  ballotings,  the 
choice  fell  on  Jefferson;  and  Burr,  who  was  now 
second  on  the  list,  was  declared  Vice-President. 
After  controlling  the  government  for  twelve  years, 
the  Federal  party  passed  from  power,  never  to  be 
restored. 


49 6  History  of  the  United  States 


CHAPTER  III 

JEFFERSON'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1801-1809 

AT  the  beginning  of  his  administration  Mr.  Jef 
ferson  transferred  the  chief  offices  of  the  govern 
ment  to  members  of  the  Democratic  party.  This 
policy  had  in  some  measure  been  adopted  by  his 
predecessor;  but  the  principle  was  now  made  uni 
versal.  Such  action  was  justified  by  the  adherents 
of  the  President  on  the  ground  that  the  affairs  of 
a  republic  will  be  best  administered  when  the  of 
ficers  hold  the  same  political  sentiments.  One  of 
the  first  acts  of  Congress  was  to  abolish  the  sys 
tem  of  internal  revenues.  The  unpopular  laws 
against  foreigners  and  the 
freedom  of  the  press  were  also 
repealed.  But  the  territorial 
legislation  of  Jefferson's  first 
term  was  most  important  of 
all. 

In  the  year  1800  a  line  was 
drawn  through  the  Northwest 
Territory  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Miami  River  to 
Fort  Recovery,  and  thence  to 
Canada.  Two  years  after 
ward  the  country  east  of  this 
erected  into  the  State  of  Ohio  and 


Thomas  Jefferson 
President   1801-09 


line    was 

admitted  into  the  Union.     The  portion  west  of 

the  line,  embracing  the  present  States  of  Indiana, 


Jefferson's  Administration  497 

Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  a  part  of  Michigan,  was 
organized  under  the  name  of  the  Indiana  Terri 
tory.  Vincennes  was  the  capital ;  and  General  Wil 
liam  Henry  Harrison  received  the  appointment  of 
governor.  About  the  same  time  the  organization 
of  the  Mississippi  Territory,  extending  from  the 
western  limits  of  Georgia  to  the  great  river,  was 
completed.  Thus  another  grand  and  fertile  dis 
trict  of  a  hundred  thousand  square  miles  was  re 
claimed  from  barbarism. 

More  important  still  was  the  purchase  of  Lou 
isiana.  In  1800  Napoleon  had  compelled  Spain 
to  make  a  secret  cession  of  this  vast  territory  to 
France.  The  First  Consul  then  prepared  to  send 
an  army  to  New  Orleans  for  the  purpose  of  estab 
lishing  his  authority.  But  the  government  of  the 
United  States  remonstrated  against  such  a  proceed 
ing;  France  was  threatened  with  multiplied  wars 
at  home;  and  Bonaparte,  seeing  the  difficulty  of 
maintaining  a  colonial  empire  at  so  great  a  dis 
tance,  authorized  his  minister  to  dispose  of  Lou 
isiana  by  sale.  The  President  appointed  Mr. 
Livingston  and  James  Monroe  to  negotiate  the 
purchase.  On  the  3Oth  of  April,  1803,  the  terms 
of  transfer  were  agreed  on  by  the  agents  of  the 
two  nations ;  and  for  the  sum  of  eleven  million  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  Louisiana  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States.*  In  another  conven 
tion,  which  was  signed  on  the  same  day,  it  was 

*  Bonaparte  accepted  in  payment  six  per  cent,  bonds  of  the 
United  States,  payable  fifteen  years  after  date.  He  also  agreed 
not  to  sell  the  bonds  at  such  a  price  as  would  degrade  the 
credit  of  the  American  government. 


498  History  of  the  United  States 

agreed  that  the  government  of  the  United  States 
should  assume  the  payment  of  certain  debts  due 
from  France  to  American  citizens;  but  the  sum 
thus  assumed  should  not,  inclusive  of  interest,  ex 
ceed  three  million  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars.  Thus  did  the  vast  domain  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  embracing  an  area  of  more  than  a 
million  square  miles,  pass  under  the  dominion  of 
the  United  States. 

The  purchase  of  Louisiana  was  the  greatest 
event  of  Jefferson's  administration.  Out  of  the 
southern  portion  of  the  new  acquisition  the  Terri 
tory  of  Orleans  was  organized,  with  the  same  lim 
its  as  the  present  State  of  Louisiana ;  the  rest  of 
the  vast  tract  continued  to  be  called  the  Territory 
of  Louisiana.  The  possession  of  the  Mississippi 
was  no  longer  a  matter  of  dispute.  Very  justly 
did  Mr.  Livingston  say  to  the  French  minister  as 
they  arose  from  signing  the  treaty:  "We  have 
lived  long,  but  this  is  the  noblest  work  of  our 
whole  lives." 

Two  years  previous  to  these  events  John  Mar 
shall  had  been  nominated  and  confirmed  as  chief- 
justice  of  the  United  States.  His  appointment 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  country.  In 
the  colonial  times  the  English  constitution  and  com 
mon  law  had  prevailed  in  America,  and  judicial 
decisions  were  based  exclusively  on  precedents  es 
tablished  in  English  courts.  When,  in  1789,  the 
new  republic  was  organized,  it  became  necessary 
to  modify  to  a  certain  extent  the  principles  of 
jurisprudence  and  to  adapt  them  to  the  altered 


Jefferson's  Administration  499 

theory  of  government.  In  some  measure  this  great 
work  was  undertaken  by  Chief- Justice  Jay;  but  he 
was  a  great  statesman  rather  than  a  great  judge. 
It  remained  for  Chief- Justice  Marshall  to  establish 
on  a  firm  and  enduring  basis  the  noble  structure 
of  American  law.  For  thirty-five  years  he  re 
mained  in  his  high  office,  bequeathing  to  after 
times  a  great  number  of  valuable  decisions,  in 
which  the  principles  of  the  jurisprudence  of  the 
United  States  are  set  forth  with  unvarying  clear 
ness  and  invincible  logic. 

The  Mediterranean  pirates  still  annoyed  Ameri 
can  merchantmen.  All  of  the  Barbary  States — as 
the  Moorish  kingdoms  of  Northern  Africa  are 
called — had  adopted  the  plan  of  extorting  annual 
tributes  from  the  European  nations.  The  emper 
ors  of  Morocco,  Algiers,  and  Tripoli  became  espe 
cially  arrogant.  In  1803  the  government  of  the 
United  States  dispatched  Commodore  Preble  to 
the  Mediterranean  to  protect  American  commerce 
and  punish  the  hostile  powers.  The  armament 
proceeded  first  against  Morocco;  but  the  frigate 
Philadelphia,  commanded  by  Captain  Bainbridge, 
was  sent  directly  to  Tripoli.  When  nearing  his 
destination,  Bainbridge  gave  chase  to  a  pirate, 
which  fled  for  safety  to  the  batteries  of  the  har 
bor.  The  Philadelphia,  in  close  pursuit,  ran  upon 
a  reef  of  rocks  near  the  shore,  became  unmanage 
able,  and  was  captured  by  the  Tripolitans.  The 
crew  and  officers  were  taken;  the  latter  were 
treated  with  some  respect,  but  the  former  were 
enslaved.  The  emperor  Yusef  and  his  barbarous 


500  History  of  the  United  States 

subjects  were  greatly  elated  at  their  unexpected 
success. 

In  the  following  February,  Captain  Decatur  re 
captured  the  Philadelphia  in  a  marvelous  manner. 
Sailing  from  Sicily  in  a  small  vessel  called  the 
Intrepid,  he  came  at  nightfall  in  sight  of  the  har 
bor  of  Tripoli,  where  the  Philadelphia  was 
moored.  The  Intrepid,  being  a  Moorish  ship 
which  the  American  fleet  had  captured,  was  either 
unseen  or  unsuspected  by  the  Tripolitans.  As 
darkness  settled  on  the  sea,  Decatur  steered  his 
course  into  the  harbor,  slipped  alongside  of  the 
Philadelphia,  lashed  the  two  ships  together,  sprang 
on  deck  with  his  daring  crew  of  only  seventy-four 
men,  and  killed  or  drove  overboard  every  Moor 
on  the  vessel.  In  a  moment  the  frigate  was  fired, 
for  it  was  the  purpose  to  destroy  her;  then  De 
catur  and  his  men,  escaping  from  the  flames,  re 
turned  to  the  Intrepid  and  sailed  out  of  the  harbor 
amid  a  storm  of  balls  from  the  Tripolitan  batter 
ies.  Not  a  man  of  Decatur's  gallant  band  was 
lost,  and  only  four  were  wounded. 

In  the  last  of  July,  1804,  Commodore  Preble 
arrived  with  his  fleet  at  Tripoli  and  began  a  block 
ade  and  siege  which  lasted  till  the  following  spring. 
The  town  was  frequently  bombarded,  and  several 
Moorish  vessels  were  destroyed.  In  the  meantime, 
William  Eaton,  the  American  consul  at  Tunis,  had 
organized  a  force  in  that  kingdom,  and  was 
marching  overland  to  Tripoli.  Yusefs  elder 
brother,  Hamet,  who  was  the  rightful  sovereign 
of  Tripoli,  was  co-operating  with  Eaton  in  an 


Jefferson's  Administration  501 

effort  to  recover  his  kingdom.  Yusef,  alarmed  at 
the  dangers  which  menaced  him  by  sea  and  land, 
made  hasty  overtures  for  peace.  His  offers  were 
accepted  by  Mr.  Lear,  the  American  consul-gen 
eral  for  the  Barbary  States ;  and  a  treaty  was  con 
cluded  on  the  4th  of  June,  1805.*  For  several 
years  thereafter  the  flag  of  the  United  States  was 
respected  in  the  Mediterranean. 

In  the  summer  of  1804  the  country  was  shocked 
by  the  intelligence  that  Vice- 
President  Burr  had  killed  Alex 
ander  Hamilton  in  a  duel.  As 
the  first  term  of  Mr.  Jefferson 
drew  to  a  close,  Burr  foresa\v 
that  the  President  would  be  re- 
nominated,  and  that  he  himself 
would  not  be  renominated.  Still, 
he  had  his  eye  on  the  presidency, 
and  was  determined  not  to  be  Aaron  Burr 
baffled.  He  therefore,  while 
holding  the  office  of  Vice-President,  became  a  candi 
date  for  governor  of  New  York.  From  that  posi 
tion  he  would  pass  to  the  presidency  at  the  close 
of  Jefferson's  second  term.  But  Hamilton's  pow 
erful  influence  in  New  York  prevented  Burr's  elec 
tion;  and  his  presidential  ambition  received  a  stun 
ning  blow.  From  that  day  he  determined  to  kill 
the  man  whom  he  pretended  to  regard  as  the  de 
stroyer  of  his  hopes.  He  accordingly  sought  a 

*  It  is  a  matter  of  astonishment  that  Lear  agreed  to  pay 
Yusef  sixty  thousand  dollars  for  the  liberation  of  American 
slaves:  their  liberation  ought  to  have  been  compelled — and 
might  have  been  if  Lear  had  said  so. 


502  History  of  the  United  States 

quarrel  with  Hamilton;  challenged  him;  met  him 
at  Weehawken,  opposite  New  York,  on  the  morn 
ing  of  the  nth  of  July,  and  deliberately  murdered 
him;  for  Hamilton  had  tried  to  avoid  the  chal 
lenge,  and  when  face  to  face  with  his  antagonist 
refused  to  fire.  Thus  under  the  savage  and 
abominable  custom  of  dueling  the  brightest  intel 
lect  in  America  was  put  out  in  darkness. 

In  the  autumn  of  1804  Jefferson  was  re-elected 
President.  For  Vice-President  George  Clinton,  of 
New  York,  was  chosen  in 
place  of  Burr.  In  the  fol 
lowing  year  that  part  of 
the  Northwestern  Territory 
called  Wayne  county  was 
organized  under  a  separate 
territorial  government  with 
the  name  of  Michigan.  In 
the  same  spring,  Captains 
Lewis  and  Clark,  acting 
under  orders  of  the  Presi 
dent,  set  out  from  the  falls 
of  the  Missouri  River  with 
a  party  of  forty-five  sol 
diers  and  hunters  to  cross 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
explore  Oregon.  Not  until 
November  did  they  reach  their  destination.  For 
two  years,  through  forests  of  gigantic  pines, 
along  the  banks  of  unknown  rivers,  and  down  to 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  did  they  continue  their 
explorations.  After  wandering  among  unheard-of 


Merriwether  Lewis 


Jefferson's  Administration 


503 


tribes  of  barbarians,  encountering  grizzly  bears 
more  ferocious  than  Bengal  tigers,  escaping  perils 
by  forest  and  flood,  and  traversing  a  route  of  nine 
thousand  miles,  the 
hardy  adventurers, 
with  the  loss  of  but 
one  man,  returned  to 
civilization,  bringing 
new  ideas  of  the  vast 
domains  of  the  West. 
It  was  largely  upon 
this  expedition  that  our 
government  based  its 
claim  to  the  Oregon 
country  in  later  years. 
After  the  death  of 
Hamilton,  Burr  fled 
from  popular  indigna 
tion  and  sought  refuge 
in  the  South.  At  the  opening  of  the  next  session  of 
Congress  he  returned  to  the  capital,  and  presided 
over  the  Senate  until  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office.  Then  he  delivered  his  valedictory,  went  to 
the  West,  and,  after  traveling  through  several 
States,  took  up  his  residence  with  an  Irish  exile 
named  Harman  Blennerhassett,  who  had  laid  out 
an  estate  and  built  a  splendid  mansion  on  an  island 
in  the  Ohio  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Muskin- 
gum.  Here  Burr  unfolded  a  scheme,  which  the 
adventurous  Irishman  readily  approved.  His  plan 
was  to  raise  a  sufficient  military  force,  invade  Mex 
ico,  wrest  that  country  from  the  Spaniards,  and 


Lewis  and  Clark  at  the 
Gate  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 


504  History  of  the  United  States 

some  say  detach  the  Western  and  Southern  States 
from  the  Union,  make  himself  dictator  of  a  South 
western  empire,  and  perhaps  subvert  the  govern 
ment  of  the  United  States.  For  two  years  he  la 
bored  to  perfect  his  plans.  He  passed  down  the 
Ohio,  visited  prominent  people,  and  enlisted  many 
in  his  filibustering  scheme.  Again  returning  to 
the  East  he  sought  aid  from  the  English  minister. 
His  success  in  the  East  was  meager,  for  while  he 
had  many  warm  friends  there,  he  was  not  so  popu 
lar  as  in  the  West.  In  the  meantime  at  Marietta, 
Ohio,  boats  were  being  built  and  stores  of  various 
kinds  collected.  Burr,  returning  to  Blennerhassett 
Island,  proceeded  with  the  final  touches  of  prepa 
ration.  When  everything  gave  promise  of  success, 
President  Jefferson  issued  a  proclamation  calling 
for  the  arrest  of  everybody  connected  with  the 
scheme.  Burr  escaped;  the  military  stores  were 
destroyed;  the  beautiful  Blennerhassett  home  and 
island  were  changed  to  scenes  of  desolation,  and 
Blennerhassett  and  family  became  once  more  ex 
iles.  But  his  purposes  were  suspected.  In  Febru 
ary  of  1807  Burr  himself  was  arrested  in  Ala 
bama  and  taken  to  Richmond  to  be  tried  on  a 
charge  of  treason.  Chief-Justice  Marshall  pre 
sided  at  the  trial,  and  Burr  conducted  his  own 
defense.  The  verdict  was,  "  Not  guilty,  for  want 
of  sufficient  proof."  But  his  escape  was  so  narrow 
that  under  an  assumed  name  he  fled  from  the 
country.  Returning  a  few  years  afterward,  he 
resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York,  lived 
to  extreme  old  age,  and  died  alone  in  poverty. 


Jefferson's  Administration  505^ 

During  Jefferson's  second  administration  the 
country  was  constantly  agitated  by  the  aggressions 
of  the  British  navy  on  American  commerce.  Eng 
land  and  France-  were  engaged  in  deadly  and  con 
tinuous  war.  In  order  to  cripple  the  resources  of 
their  enemy,  the  British  authorities  struck  blow 
after  blow  against  the  trade  between  France  and 
foreign  nations;  and  Napoleon  retaliated  with  equal 
energy  and  vindictiveness  against  the  commerce  of 
Great  Britain.  The  measures  adopted  by  the  two 
powers  took  the  form  of  blockade — that  is,  the  sur 
rounding  of  each  other's  ports  with  men-of-war  to 
prevent  the  ingress  and  egress  of  neutral  ships. 
By  such  means  the  commerce  of  the  United  States, 
which  had  grown  vast  and  valuable  while  the 
European  nations  were  fighting,  was  greatly  in 
jured  and  distressed. 

In  May  of  1806  England  declared  the  whole 
coast  of  France  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe  to  be  in 
a  state  of  blockade.  Neutral  nations  had  no  warn 
ing.  Many  American  vessels,  approaching  the 
French  ports,  were  seized  and  condemned  as 
prizes;  all  this,  too,  while  the  harbors  of  France 
were  not  actually,  but  only  declared  to  be,  block 
aded.  In  the  following  November,  Bonaparte  is 
sued  a  decree  blockading  the  British  Isles.  Again 
the  unsuspecting  merchantmen  of  the  United  States 
were  subjected  to  seizure,  this  time  by  the  cruisers 
of  France.  In  January  of  the  next  year  the  gov 
ernment  of  Great  Britain  retaliated  by  an  act  pro 
hibiting  the  French  coasting-trade.  Every  one  of 
these  measures  was  in  flagrant  violation  of  the  laws 


506  History  of  the  United  States 

of  nations.  The  belligerent  powers  had  no  right 
to  take  such  steps  toward  each  other;  as  to  neutral 
States,  their  rights  were  utterly  disregarded;  and 
the  nation  that  suffered  most  was  the  United 
States,  for  at  this  time  she  was  the  carrier  for  the 
world. 

Great  Britain  aggravated  her  injustice  by  a  still 
more  arrogant  procedure.  The  English  theory  of 
citizenship  was  that  whoever  is  born  in  England 
remains  through  life  a  subject  of  the  British  em 
pire.  Under  this  claim  English  cruisers  were  au 
thorized  to  search  American  vessels  and  to  take 
therefrom  all  persons  suspected  of  being  British 
subjects.  Those  who  were  taken  were,  without  in 
quiry,  impressed  as  seamen  in  the  English  navy; 
and  that  was  the  real  object  of  the  whole  shameful 
business,  nor  would  the  British  ministry  agree  to 
America's  offer  of  a  mutual  exchange  of  deserters. 
To  these  general  wrongs  was  added  a  special  act 
of  violence  which  kindled  the  indignation  of  the 
Americans  to  the  highest  pitch. 

On  the  22d  of  June,  1807,  a  frigate,  named  the 
Chesapeake,  which  had  just  sailed  out  of  the  bay 
of  the  same  name,  was  approached  by  a  British 
man-of-war,  called  the  Leopard.  The  frigate  was 
hailed;  British  officers  came  on  board  as  friends, 
and  then,  to  the  astonishment  of  Commodore  Bar- 
ron,  who  commanded  the  Chesapeake,  made  a  de 
mand  to  search  the  vessel  for  deserters.  The  de 
mand  was  indignantly  refused  and  the  ship  cleared 
for  action.  But  before  the  guns  could  be  gotten 
in  readiness,  the  Leopard  poured  in  several  de- 


Jefferson's  Administration  507 

structive  broadsides,  killing  three  and  wounding 
eighteen  and  compelled  a  surrender.  Five  men 
were  taken  from  the  captured  ship,  three  of  whom 
proved  to  be  American  citizens;  one  of  the  others, 
who  were  actual  deserters,  was  tried  by  the  British 
naval  officers  and  hanged.  The  government  of 
Great  Britain  disavowed  the  outrage  of  the 
Leopard,  and  promised  reparation;  but  the  prom 
ise  was  never  fulfilled.  Five  years  later  the  three 
deserters  were  replaced  on  the  Chesapeake. 

The  President  at  once  issued  a  proclamation  for 
bidding  British  ships  of  war  to  enter  the  harbors  of 
the  United  States.  Still,  there  was  no  reparation; 
and  on  the  2ist  of  December,  Congress  passed 
the  celebrated  Embargo  Act,  which  cost  Mr.  Jef 
ferson  much  of  his  popularity.  By  its  provisions 
all  American  vessels  were  detained  in  the  ports  of 
the  United  States.  The  object  was,  by  cutting  off 
commercial  intercourse  with  France  and  Great 
Britain,  to  compel  them  to  recognize  the  rights 
of  American  neutrality.  But  the  measure  was  of 
little  avail;  and  after  fourteen  months  the  embargo 
act  was  repealed.*  Meanwhile,  in  November  of 
1808,  the  British  government  outdid  all  previous 
proceedings  by  issuing  an  "  order  in  council,"  pro 
hibiting  all  trade  with  France  and  her  allies.  And 
Napoleon,  not  to  be  outdone,  issued  his  famous 
"  Milan  decree,"  forbidding  all  commerce  with 
England  and  her  colonies.  Between  these  out- 

*The  embargo  act  was  the  subject  of  much  ridicule.  The 
opponents  of  the  measure,  spelling  the  word  backward,  called 
it  the  O  grab  me  act. 


508  History  of  the  United  States 

rageous  acts  of  foreign  nations  and  the  American 
embargo,  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  was 
well-nigh  crushed  out  of  existence.  The  harbors 
were  filled  with  rotting  ships.  Stores  of  grain  and 
other  produce  were  lying  in  barns  and  warehouses. 
New  England  especially  suffered,  and  from  this 
time  until  even  to-day  America  has  no  extensive 
merchant  marine. 

While  the  country  was  distracted  with  these 
troubles  Robert  Fulton  was  building  the  First 
Successful  Steamboat.  Several  attempts  to  utilize 
steam  had  been  made  with  some  degree  of  success. 
In  1786  James  Rumsey  had  experimented  on  the 
Potomac  and  in  the  same  year  John  Fitch  demon 
strated  its  possibilities  on  the  Delaware.  These 
events  exercised  a  vast  influence  on  the  future  de 
velopment  of  the  nation.  It  was  of  the  first  im 
portance  to  the  people  of  the  inland  States  that 
their  great  rivers  should  be  enlivened  with  rapid 
and  regular  navigation.  This,  without  the  appli 
cation  of  steam,  was  impossible;  and  this  Fulton 
successfully  accomplished.  Indeed,  the  steamboat 
was  the  harbinger  of  a  new  era  in  civilization. 
Fulton  was  an  Irishman  by  descent  and  a  Pennsyl- 
vanian  by  birth.  His  education  was  meager  and 
imperfect.  In  his  boyhood  he  became  a  painter 
of  miniatures  at  Philadelphia.  His  friends  sent 
him  to  London  to  receive  instruction  from  Benja 
min  West;  but  his  tastes  led  him  to  the  useful 
rather  than  to  the  fine  arts.  From  London  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Chan 
cellor  Livingston ;  and  there  he  conceived  the  proj- 


Jefferson's  Administration  509 

ect  of  applying  steam  to  the  purposes  of  naviga 
tion.  Preliminary  experiments  were  made  on  the 
river  Seine  in  France.  Returning  to  New  York, 
he  began  the  construction  of  a  steamboat  in  East 
River.  When  the  ungainly  craft  was  completed 
and  brought  around  to  the  Jersey  side  of  the  city, 
Fulton  invited  his  friends 
to  go  on  board  and  enjoy 
a  trip  to  Albany.  It 
was  the  2d  of  September, 
1807.  The  incredulous 
crowds  stood  staring  on 
the  shore.  The  word 
was  given,  and  the  boat  The  ciermont 

did    not    move.      Fulton 

went  below.  Again  the  word  was  given,  and  this 
time  the  boat  moved.  On  the  next  day  the  happy 
company  reached  Albany.  For  many  years  this 
first  rude  steamer,  called  the  Ciermont,  plied  the 
Hudson.  The  old  methods  of  river  navigation 
were  revolutionized. 

Jefferson's  administration  drew  to  a  close.  The 
territorial  area  of  the  United  States  had  been 
vastly  extended.  Burr's  conspiracy  had  come  to 
naught.  Pioneers  were  pouring  into  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  Explorers  had  crossed  the 
mountains  of  the  great  West.  The  woods  by  the 
river  shores  resounded  with  the  cry  of  steam.  But 
the  foreign  relations  of  the  United  States  were 
troubled  and  gloomy.  There  were  forebodings  of 
war.  The  President,  following  the  example  of 
Washington,  declined  a  third  election,  and  was 


510  History  of  the  United  States 

succeeded  in  his  high  office  by  James  Madison,  of 
Virginia.  For  Vice-President  .George  Clinton  was 
re-elected. 


CHAPTER  IV 

MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  WAR  OF  1812 

THE  new  President  was  inaugurated  on  the  4th 
of  March,  1809.  He  had  been  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  a  delegate  to  the  Constitu 
tional  Convention  of  1787,  and  secretary  of  state 
under  Jefferson.  Long  familiarity  with  public  af 
fairs  had  fitted  him  in  an  eminent  degree  for  the 
presidency.  He  owed  his  election  to  the  Demo 
cratic  party,  whose  sympathy  with  France  and  hos 
tility  to  the  policy  of  Great  Britain  were  well 
known.  Six  days  before  the  new  administration 
came  into  power,  the  embargo  act  was  repealed 
by  Congress;  but  another  measure  was  adopted 
instead,  called  the  non-intercourse  act.  By  its 
terms  American  merchantmen  were  allowed  to  go 
abroad,  but  were  forbidden  to  trade  with  Great 
Britain.  Mr.  Erskine,  the  British  minister,  now 
gave  notice  that  by  the  loth  of  June  the  "  orders 
in  council,"  so  far  as  they  affected  the  United 
States,  should  be  repealed.  But  the  British  gov 
ernment  disavowed  the  act  of  its  agent;  and  the 
orders  stood  as  before. 

In   the    following   spring  the   emperor  of   the 
French  issued  a  decree  authorizing  the  seizure  of 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  511 

all  American  vessels  that  might  approach  the  ports 
of  France  or  other  harbors  held  by  his  troops.  But 
in  November  of  the  same  year  the  hostile  decree 
was  reversed,  and  all  restrictions  on  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States  were  removed.  If  Great 
Britain  had  acted  with 
equal  liberality  and  jus 
tice,  there  would  have 
been  no  further  com 
plaint.  But  that  govern 
ment,  with  peculiar  ob 
stinacy,  adhered  to  its 
former  measures,  and  sent 
ships  of  war  to  hover 
around  the  American 
ports  and  enforce  the  odi 
ous  orders  issued  in  previ 
ous  years.  It  was  only  a 
question  of  time  when 
such  insolence  would  lead 
to  retaliation  and  war. 

The  affairs  of  the  two  nations  were  fast  ap 
proaching  a  crisis.  It  became  more  and  more  ap 
parent  that  the  wrongs  perpetrated  by  Great 
Britain  against  the  United  States  would  have  to 
be  corrected  by  force  of  arms.  That  England, 
after  such  a  career  of  arrogance,  would  now  make 
reparation  for  the  outrages  committed  by  her  navy 
was  no  longer  to  be  hoped  for.  The  ministry  of 
that  same  George  III.  with  whom  the  colonies  had 
struggled  in  the  Revolution  still  directed  the  af 
fairs  of  the  kingdom;  from  him,  now  grown  old 


James    Madison 
President  1809-17 


512  History  of  the  United  States 

and  insane,  nothing  was  to  be  expected.  The  gov 
ernment  of  the  United  States  had  fallen  completely 
under  control  of  the  party  which  sympathized  with 
France,  while  the  Federal  party,  from  its  leaning 
toward  British  interests  and  institutions,  grew 
weaker  year  by  year.  The  American  people, 
smarting  under  the  insults  of  Great  Britain,  had 
adopted  the  motto  of  Free  Trade  and  Sailors' 
Rights,  and  for  that  motto  they  had  made  up  their 
minds  to  fight.  The  elections,  held  between  1808 
and  1811,  showed  conclusively  the  drift  of  public 
opinion;  the  sentiment  of  the  country  was  that  war 
was  preferable  to  further  humiliation  and  dis 
grace. 

In  the  spring  of  1810  the  third  census  of  the 
United  States  was  completed.  The  population  had 
increased  to  seven  million  two  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  souls.  The  States  now  numbered  seven 
teen,  and  several  new  Territories  were  preparing 
for  admission  into  the  Union.  The  resources  of 
the  nation  were  abundant;  its  institutions  deeply 
rooted  and  flourishing.  But  with  the  rapid  march 
of  civilization  westward  the  jealousy  of  the  Red 
man  was  aroused  and  Indian  Territory  was  af 
flicted  with  an  Indian  war. 

The  Shawnees  were  the  leading  tribe  in  the 
country  between  the  Ohio  and  the  Wabash.  Their 
chief  was  the  famous  Tecumtha,  a  brave  and  sa 
gacious  warrior;  and  with  him  was  joined  his 
brother  Elkswatawa,  called  the  Prophet.  The 
former  was  a  man  of  real  genius ;  the  latter,  a  vile 
impostor,  who  pretended  to  have  revelations  from 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  513 

the  spirit-world.  But  they  both  worked  together  in 
a  common  cause;  and  their  plan  was  to  unite  all 
the  nations  of  the  Northwest  Territory  in  a  final 
effort  to  beat  hack  the  whites.  When,  therefore, 
in  September  of  1809,  Governor  Harrison  met 
the  chiefs  of  several  tribes  at  Fort  Wayne,  and 
honorably  purchased  the  Indian  titles  to  three  mil 
lion  acres  of  land,  Tecumtha  refused  to  sign  the 
treaty,  and  threatened  death  to  those  who  did.  In 
the  year  that  followed  he  visited  the  nations  as  far 
south  as  Tennessee  and  exhorted  them  to  lay  aside 
their  sectional  jealousies,  in  the  hope  of  saving 
their  hunting-grounds. 

Governor  Harrison  from  Vincennes,  the  capital 
of  the  Territory,  remonstrated  with  Tecumtha 
and  the  Prophet,  held  several  conferences  with 
them,  and  warned  them  of  what  would  follow  from 
their  proceedings.  Still,  the  leaders  insisted  that 
they  would  have  back  the  lands  which  had  been 
ceded  by  the  treaty  of  Fort  Wayne.  The  governor 
stood  firm,  sent  for  a  few  companies  of  soldiers, 
and  mustered  the  militia  of  the  Territory.  The 
Indians  began  to  prowl  through  the  Wabash  Val 
ley,  murdering  and  stealing.  In  order  to  secure 
the  country  and  enforce  the  terms  of  the  treaty, 
Harrison  advanced  up  the  river  to  Terre  Haute, 
built  a  fort  which  received  his  own  name,  passed 
on  to  Montezuma,  where  another  block-house  was 
built,  and  then  hastened  toward  the  town  of  the 
Prophet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tippecanoe.  When 
within  a  few  miles  of  his  destination,  Harrison  was 
met  by  Indian  ambassadors,  who  asked  for  the 


514  History  of  the  United  States 

appointment  of  a  conference  on  the  following  day. 
Their  request  was  granted;  and  the  American 
army  encamped  for  the  night.  The  place  selected 
was  a  piece  of  high  ground  covered  with  oaks. 
Burnet  Creek  skirted  the  encampment  on  the  west. 
Beyond  that,  as  well  as  to  the  east  of  the  oak 

grove,  were  prairie  marsh 
lands    covered   with   tall 
grass.     Before   daybreak 
on  the   following  morn 
ing,    yth   of   November, 
•'*&••      1 8 1 1 ,  the  treacherous  sav- 
:/        ages,     numbering     seven 
Block-house  hundred,    crept    through 

the   marshes,   surrounded 

Harrison's  position,  and  burst  upon  the  camp  like 
demons.  But  the  American  militia  were  under 
arms  in  a  moment,  and  fighting  in  the  darkness, 
held  the  Indians  in  check  until  daylight,  and  then 
routed  them  in  several  vigorous  charges.  On  the 
next  day  the  Americans  burned  the  Prophet's  town 
and  soon  afterward  returned  victorious  to  Vin- 
cennes.  Tecumtha  was  in  the  South  at  the  time  of 
the  battle ;  when  he  returned  and  found  his  people 
scattered  and  subdued,  he  repaired  to  Canada  and 
joined  the  standard  of  the  British. 

Meanwhile,  the  powers  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  had  come  into  conflict  on  the 
ocean.  The  British  ship  Guerriere  was  reported 
to  have  impressed  an  American  seaman  named 
Diggio.  The  secretary  of  the  navy  determined 
to  make  an  object  lesson  of  this  vessel.  Accord- 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  515 

ingly,  on  the  i6th  of  May,  Commodore  Rodgers, 
cruising  in  the  American  frigate  President,  hailed 
a  vessel  off  the  coast  of  Virginia,  thinking  it  to  be 
the  Guerriere.,  Instead  of  a  polite  answer  to  his 
salutation,  he  received  a  cannon-ball  in  the  main 
mast.  Other  shots  followed,  and  Rodgers  re 
sponded  with  a  broadside,  silencing  the  enemy's 
guns.  In  the  morning — for  it  was  already  dark — 
the  hostile  ship  was  found  to  be  the  British  sloop- 
of-war  Little  Belt.  The  vessel  had  been  severely 
though  justly  punished  by  the  President,  having 
eleven  men  killed  and  twenty-one,  wounded.  The 
event  produced  great  excitement  throughout  the 
country  and  increased  the  war  spirit  that  was  fast 
gaining  control  of  the  Americans. 

On  the  4th  of  November,  1811,  the  twelfth 
Congress  of  the  United  States  assembled.  In  the 
body  were  many  men  of  marked  ability  and  pa 
triotism  who  were  destined  to  take  the  fore 
front  in  the  nation's  councils.  John  C.  Calhoun,  of 
South  Carolina,  now  took  his  seat  as  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.  Henry  Clay  was 
chosen  speaker.  From  the  first  it  was  seen  that 
war  was  inevitable.  It  was  impossible  for  the 
United  States,  knowing  that  more  than  six  thou 
sand  American  citizens  had  been  impressed  into 
the  British  navy,  to  endure,  without  dishonor, 
further  injury  and  insolence.  Still,  many  hoped 
for  peace;  and  the  winter  passed  without  decisive 
measures.  On  the  4th  of  April,  1812,  an  act 
was  passed  by  Congress  laying  an  embargo  for 
ninety  days  on  all  British  vessels  within  the  juris- 


516  History  of  the  United  States 

diction  of  the  United  States.  But  Great  Britain 
would  not  recede  from  her  hostile  attitude.  One 
of  the  ministers  declared  that  it  was  "  an  ancient 
and  well-established  right "  of  His  Majesty's  gov 
ernment  to  impress  British  seamen  on  board  of 
neutral  vessels.  Before  the  final  decision  of  Eng 
land  was  known,  Louisiana,  the  eighteenth  State, 
was,  on  the  8th  of  April,  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  area  of  the  new  commonwealth  was  more  than 
forty-one  thousand  square  miles;  and  her  popu 
lation,  according  to  the  census  of  1810,  had  reached 
seventy-seven  thousand. 

President  Madison  sent  his  war  message  to  Con 
gress  on  June  1st. 

Diplomatic  relations  had  virtually  been  broken 
off  between  the  two  countries.  Our  minister  to 
England,  William  Pinckney,  had  come  home. 
Francis  James  Jackson,  the  last  British  ambassa 
dor,  an  arrogant  boaster,  had  been  sent  back  two 
years  before.  Now  the  English  had  selected  for 
the  new  minister  one  Augustus  John  Foster,  who 
came  to  Washington  with  no  sort  of  a  message, 
except  palliative  offers.  But  the  American  people 
had  lost  their  patience  and  the  English  representa 
tive  was  given  to  understand  that  it  was  to  be 
either  a  repeal  of  the  Orders  in  Council  or  war. 
On  the  4th  of  June  a  resolution  declaring  war 
against  Great  Britain  was  passed  by  the  House  of 
Representatives.  On  the  iyth  of  the  same  month 
the  bill  received  the  sanction  of  the  Senate;  and 
the  next  day  the  President  issued  his  proclamation 
of  war.  Five  days  after  Madison  had  set  his  seal 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  517 

to  the  declaration  of  war,  the  Orders  in  Council 
were  repealed.  But  before  the  news  reached 
America  the  actual  contest  had  begun.  Vigorous 
preparations  for  the  impending  conflict  were  made 
by  Congress.  It  was  ordered  to  raise  twenty-five 
thousand  regular  troops  and  fifty  thousand  volun 
teers.  At  the  same  time  the  several  States  were 
requested  to  call  out  a  hundred  thousand  militia 
for  the  defense  of  the  coasts  and  harbors.  A  na 
tional  loan  of  eleven  million  dollars  was  au 
thorized.  Henry  Dearborn,  of  Massachusetts, 
was  chosen  first  major-general  and  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army. 

The  first  movement  of  the  war  was  made  by 
General  William  Hull,  governor  of  Michigan  Ter 
ritory.  A  force  of  twelve  hundred  Ohio  volun 
teers,  together  with  three  hundred  regulars,  was 
organized  at  Dayton  for  the  purpose  of  overawing 
the  Indians  on  the  northwestern  frontier.  Hull 
was  also  authorized,  should  circumstances  warrant 
such  a  course,  to  invade  and  conquer  Canada.  The 
march  began  on  the  ist  of  June;  and  it  was  a  full 
month  before  the  army,  toiling  through  more  than 
two  hundred  miles  of  forests,  reached  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  Erie.  Arriving  at  the  Maumee, 
Hull  dispatched  his  baggage,  stores,  and  official 
papers  in  a  boat  to  Detroit.  But  the  British  forces 
posted  at  Maiden  had  already  been  informed  of 
the  declaration  of  hostilities;  and  Hull's  boat  with 
everything  on  board  was  captured.  Nevertheless, 
the  American  army  pressed  on  to  Detroit,  where 
early  in  July  the  general  received  dispatches  in- 


518  History  of  the  United  States 

forming  him  of  the  declaration  of  war,  and  di 
recting  him  to  proceed  with  the  invasion  of  Can 
ada.  On  the  1 2th  of  the  month  he  crossed  the 
Detroit  River  to  Sandwich  with  the  avowed  pur 
pose  of  capturing  Maiden.  And  this  might  easily 
have  been  accomplished  had  not  the  inefficiency 
of  the  general  checked  the  enthusiasm  of  the  army. 

Meanwhile,  the  news  came  that  the  American 
post  at  Mackinaw  had  been  surprised  and  captured 
by  the  British.  This  intelligence  furnished  Hull 
a  good  excuse  for  recrossing  the  river  to  Detroit. 
Here  he  received  intelligence  that  Major  Brush, 
sent  fonvard  by  Governor  Meigs  of  Ohio,  was  ap 
proaching  with  re-enforcements  and  supplies. 
Major  Van  Home  was  accordingly  dispatched 
with  a  body  of  troops  to  meet  Brush  at  the  river 
Raisin  and  conduct  him  safely  to  Detroit.  But 
Tecumtha,  assisted  by  some  British  troops,  had 
cut  the  lines  of  communication  and  laid  an  ambush 
for  Van  Home's  forces  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Brownstown.  The  scheme  was  successful;  Van 
Home  ran  into  the  trap  and  was  severely  defeated. 
Any  kind  of  energetic  movement  on  Hull's  part 
would  have  retrieved  the  disaster;  but  energy  was 
altogether  wanting;  and  when,  three  days  later, 
Colonel  Miller  with  another  detachment  attacked 
and  routed  the  savages  with  great  loss,  he  was 
hastily  recalled  to  Detroit.  The  officers  and  men 
lost  all  faith  in  the  commander,  and  there  were 
symptoms  of  a  mutiny. 

In  the  meantime,  General  Brock,  the  governor 
of  Upper  Canada,  arrived  at  Maiden  and  took 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  519 

command  of  the  British  forces.  Acting  in  con 
junction  with  Tecumtha,  he  crossed  the  river,  and 
on  the  1 6th  of  August  advanced  to  the  siege  of 
Detroit.  The  Americans  in  their  trenches  outside 
of  the  fort  were  eager  for  battle,  and  stood  with 
lighted  matches  awaiting  the  order  to  fire.  When 
the  British  were  within  five  hundred  yards,  to 
the  amazement  of  both  armies  Hull  hoisted  a 
white  flag  over  the  fort.  There  was  a  brief  par 
ley  and  then  a  surrender,  perhaps  the  most  shame 
ful  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Not  only 
the  army  in  Detroit,  but  all  the  forces  under  Hull's 
command,  became  prisoners  of  war.  The  whole 
of  Michigan  Territory  was  surrendered  to  the 
British.  At  the  capitulation  the  American  officers 
in  rage  and  despair  stamped  the  ground,  broke 
their  swords,  and  tore  off  their  epaulets.  The 
whole  country  was  humiliated  at  the  disgraceful 
business.  The  government  gave  thirty  British 
prisoners  in  exchange  for  Hull,  and  he  was 
brought  before  a  court-martial  charged  with  trea 
son,  cowardice,  and  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer. 
He  was  convicted  on  the  last  two  charges,  and 
sentenced  to  be  shot;  but  the  President,  having 
compassion  on  one  who  had  served  the  country  in 
the  Revolution,  pardoned  him.  After  all  the  dis 
cussions  that  have  been  had  on  Hull  and  his  cam 
paign,  the  best  that  can  be  said  of  him  is  that  he 
was  a  patriot  and  a  coward. 

On  the  same  day  Detroit  fell,  Fort  Dearborn, 
on  the  present  site  of  Chicago,  was  invested  by  an 
army  of  Indians.  The  garrison  was  feeble,  and 


520  History  of  the  United  States 

the  commandant  proposed  a  surrender  on  condition 
that  his  men  should  retire  without  molestation. 
This  was  agreed  to;  but  the  savages,  finding  that 
the  garrison  had  destroyed  the  whiskey  that  was 
in  the  fort,  fell  upon  the  retreating  soldiers,  killed 
some  of  them,  and  distributed  the  rest  as  captives. 
On  the  day  after  the  capitulation  Fort  Dearborn 
was  burned  to  the  ground. 

These  losses  were  more  than  compensated  by 


Battle  Between  the  Constitution 
and  the   Guerriere 

brilliant  victories  on  the  ocean.  During  the  sum 
mer  of  1812  the  American  navy  won  a  just  re 
nown.  On  the  1 9th  of  August  the  frigate  Consti 
tution,  commanded  by  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  a 
nephew  of  the  Michigan  governor,  overtook  the 
British  ship-of-war  Guerriere  off  the  coast  of 
Massachusetts.  Captain  Dacres,  who  commanded 
the  British  vessel,  had  been  boasting  of  his  prow 
ess  and  sending  challenges  to  American  ships  to 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812  52 r 

come  out  and  fight;  now  there  was  an  opportunity 
to  exhibit  his  valor.  The  vessels  maneuvered  for 
a  while,  the  Constitution  closing  with  her  antago 
nist,  until  at  half-pistol  shot  she  poured  in  a  ter 
rible  broadside,  sweeping  the  decks  of  the  Guer- 
riere  and  deciding  the  contest.  Dacres,  after  los 
ing  fifteen  men  killed  and  sixty-three  wounded, 
struck  his  colors  and  surrendered  his  shattered 
vessel  as  a  prize.  The  American  loss  was  seven 
killed  and  an  equal  number  wounded.  On  the 
following  morning  the  Guerriere,  being  unmanage 
able,  was  blown  up;  and  Hull  returned  to  port 
with  his  prisoners  and  spoils. 

On  the  1 8th  of  October  the  American  sloop-of- 
war  Wasp,  of  eighteen  guns,  under  command  of 
Captain  Jones,  fell  in  with  a  fleet  of  British  mer 
chantmen  off  the  coast  of  Virginia.  The  squad 
ron  was  under  convoy  of  the  brig  Frolic,  of 
twenty-two  guns,  commanded  by  Captain  Whin- 
yates,  who  put  his  vessel  between  the  merchantmen 
and  the  Wasp,  and  prepared  for  battle.  The  sea 
was  running  high  and  the  vessels  pitched  up  and 
down  before  each  other.  A  terrible  engagement 
ensued,  lasting  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 
Both  ships  became  nearly  helpless;  but  the  Wasp 
closed  with  her  foe  and  delivered  a  final  broadside 
which  completely  cleared  the  deck.  The  Ameri 
can  crew  then  boarded  the  Frolic  and  struck  the 
British  flag;  for  not  a  seaman  was  left  above  deck 
to  perform  that  service.  Scarcely  had  the  smoke 
of  the  conflict  cleared  away  when  the  Poictiers,  a 
British  seventy- four  gun  ship,  bore  down  upon  the 


522  History  of  the  United  States 

scene,  captured  the  Wasp,  and  retook  the 
wreck  of  the  Frolic.  But  the  fame  of  Cap 
tain  Jones's  victory  was  not  dimmed  by  the  catas 
trophe. 

Seven  days  afterward,  Commodore  Decatur, 
commanding  the  frigate  United  States,  of  forty- 
four  guns,  attacked  the  British  frigate  Macedo 
nian,  of  forty-nine  guns.  The 
battle  was  fought  a  short  dis 
tance  west  of  the  Canary  Islands. 
After  a  two  hours'  engagement, 
in  which  the  United  States  was 
but  little  injured,  the  Macedonian 
surrendered,  with  a  loss  in  killed 
and  wounded  of  more  than  a 
hundred  men.  On  the  I2th  of 
December  the  ship  Essex,  corn- 
Commodore  Decatur  manded  by  Captain  Porter,  cap 
tured  the  Nocton,  a  British 
packet,  having  on  board  fifty-five  thousand  dollars 
in  specie.  More  important  still  was  the  capture  of 
the  frigate  Java  by  the  Constitution,  better  known 
as  "Old  Ironsides,"  now  under  command  of  Com 
modore  Bainbridge.  On  the  29th  of  December  the 
two  vessels  met  off  San  Salvador,  on  the  coast  of 
Brazil.  A  furious  battle  ensued,  continuing  for 
two  hours,  every  mast  was  torn  from  the  British 
ship,  and  her  hull  was  burst  with  round  shot.  The 
deck  was  made  slippery  with  the  blood  of  more  than 
two  hundred  killed  and  wounded  seamen.  The 
vessel  was  reduced  to  a  wreck  before  the  flag  was 
struck;  then  the  crew  and  passengers,  numbering 


Madison's  Administration  and  War  of  1812   523 

upward  of  four  hundred,  were  transferred  to  the 
Constitution,  and  the  hull  of  the  Java  was  burned 
at  sea.  The  news  of  these  successive  victories 
roused  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  to  the  highest 
pitch.  In  the  course  of  the  year  three  hundred 


Old   Ironsides 


British  ships,  carrying  three  thousand  sailors,  and 
cargoes  of  immense  value,  were  captured  by  the 
American  cruisers. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1812  mili 
tary  operations  were  active,  but  not  decisive,  on 
the  Niagara  frontier.  The  troops  in  that  quarter, 
consisting  of  the  New  York  militia,  a  few  regu 
lars,  and  recruits  from  other  States,  were  com- 


524  History  of  the  United  States 

manded  by  General  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer.  The 
first  movement  of  the  Americans  was  made  against 
Queenstown,  on  the  Canada  side  of  the  river.  On 
the  1 3th  of  October  a  thousand  men  were  em 
barked  in  boats  and  landed  on  the  western  shore. 
They  were  resisted  at  the  water's  edge,  and  Colonel 
Solomon  Van  Rensselaer,  the  leader,  was  wounded. 
The  subordinate  officers  led  the  charge,  and  the 
British  batteries  on  the  heights  of  Queenstown 
were  carried.  The  enemy's  forces  were  rallied, 
however,  by  General  Brock,  and  returning  to  the 
charge,  were  a  second  time  repulsed.  General 
Brock  fell  mortally  wounded.  The  Americans  be 
gan  to  intrench  themselves,  and  orders  were  sent 
across  the  river  for  the  remaining  division,  twelve 
hundred  strong,  to  hasten  to  the  rescue.  But  the 
American  militia  on  the  eastern  shore  declared 
that  they  were  there  to  defend  the  United  States, 
and  not  to  invade  Canada.  There  they  stood  all 
afternoon,  while  their  comrades  at  Queenstown 
were  surrounded  by  the  British,  who  came  with 
strong  re-enforcements  from  Fort  George.  The 
Americans  bravely  defended  themselves  until  they 
had  lost  a  hundred  and  sixty  men  in  killed  and 
wounded,  and  were  then  obliged  to  surrender. 
General  Van  Rensselaer,  disgusted  at  the  conduct 
of  the  New  York  militia,  resigned  his  command, 
and  was  succeeded  by  General  Alexander  Smyth, 
of  Virginia. 

The  Americans,  numbering  between  four  and 
five  thousand,  were  now  rallied  at  Black  Rock,  a 
few  miles  north  of  Buffalo.  From  this  point,  on 


War  of  1812  525 

the  28th  of  November,  a  company  was  sent  across 
to  the  Canada  shore;  but  instead  of  following  with 
a  stronger  detachment,  General  Smyth  ordered  the 
advance  party  to  return.  A  few  days  afterward 
another  crossing  was  planned,  and  the  Americans 
were  already  embarked,  when  they  were  com 
manded  to  return  to  winter  quarters.  The  militia 
became  mutinous.  Smyth  was  charged  with  cow 
ardice  and  disloyalty,  and  after  three  months  was 
deposed  from  his  command.  The  only  success  of 
the  year  to  the  American  arms  on  land  was  the 
repulse  of  seven  hundred  British  at  Ogdensburg, 
New  York,  by  a  force  under  Jacob  Brown,  a 
Quaker  farmer.  Thus  ended  the  military  opera 
tions  of  1812.  In  the  autumn  Madison  was  re- 
elected  President;  the  choice  for  Vice-President 
fell  on  Elbridge  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts.  In  the 
debates  at  the  opening  of  Congress  the  policy  of 
the  administration  was  strongly  condemned  by  the 
opponents  of  the  war;  but  vigorous  measures  were 
adopted  for  strengthening  the  army  and  navy. 


CHAPTER  V 

WAR  OF    1 8 12. — CONTINUED 

IN  the  beginning  of  1813  the  American  army  was 
organized  in  three  divisions :  the  Army  of  the 
North,  commanded  by  General  Wade  Hampton, 
to  operate  in  the  country  of  Lake  Champlain;  the 


526  History  of  the  United  States 

Army  of  the  Center,  under  direction  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief,  to  resume  offensive  movements  on 
the  Niagara  frontier  and  Lake  Ontario;  the  Army 
of  the  West,  under  command  of  General  Win 
chester,  who  was  soon  superseded  by  General  Har 
rison.  Early  in  January  the  latter  division,  made 
up  of  various  detachments  of  militia  from  the 
Western  States,  moved  toward  the  head  of  Lake 
Erie  to  regain  the  ground  lost  by  Hull  in  the 
previous  summer.  On  the  loth  of  the  month  the 
American  advance,  composed  of  eight  hundred 
men  under  Winchester,  reached  the  rapids  of  the 
Maumee.  A  body  of  British  and  Indians  was 
posted  at  Frenchtown,  on  the  river  Raisin,  thirty 
miles  from  Winchester's  camp.  A  detachment  of 
Americans  pressed  forward,  attacked  the  enemy, 
captured  the  town,  encamped  there,  and  on  the 
2Oth  of  the  month  were  joined  by  Winchester  with 
the  main  division. 

Two  days  afterward  the  Americans  were  sud 
denly  assaulted  by  a  force  of  fifteen  hun 
dred  British  and  Indians  under  command  of  Gen 
eral  Proctor.  A  severe  battle  was  fought,  each 
party  losing  nearly  three  hundred  men.  The  Brit 
ish  were  checked,  and  for  a  while  the  issue  was 
doubtful;  but  General  Winchester,  having  been 
taken  by  the  enemy,  advised  his  forces  to  capitulate 
under  a  pledge  of  protection  given  by  Proctor  and 
his  subordinates.  As  soon  as  the  surrender  was 
made  the  British  general  set  off  at  a  rapid  rate  to 
return  to  Maiden.  The  American  wounded  were 
left  to  the  mercy  of  the  savages,  who  at  once  be- 


War  of  1812  527 

gan  their  work  with  tomahawk  and  scalping-knife 
and  torch.  The  two  houses  into  which  most  of 
the  wounded  had  been  crowded  were  fired,  while 
the  painted  barbarians  stood  around  and  hurled 
back  into  the  flames  whoever  attempted  to  escape. 
The  rest  of  the  prisoners  were  dragged  away 
through  untold  sufferings  to  Detroit,  where  they 
were  ransomed  at  an  enormous  price.  This  shame 
ful  campaign  has  fixed  on  the  name  of  Proctor  the 
indelible  stain  of  infamy.  "  Remember  the  Rai 
sin,"  now  became  the  war-cry  of  the  west. 

General  Harrison,  on  hearing  the  fate  of  Win 
chester's  division,  fell  back  from  the  Maumee,  but 
soon  returned  and  built  Fort  Meigs,  near  the  pres 
ent  city  of  Toledo,  Ohio.  Here  he  remained  un 
til  the  ist  of  May,  when  he  was  besieged  by  a 
force  of  two  thousand  British  and  savages,  led  by 
Proctor  and  Tecumtha.  Meanwhile,  General  Clay 
with  twelve  hundred  Kentuckians  advanced  to  the 
relief  of  the  fort.  The  besiegers  were  attacked  in 
turn,  and  at  the  same  time  the  besieged  made  a 
successful  sally.  But  for  the  mistake  of  Colonel 
Dudley,  who  allowed  his  detachment  to  be  cut  off 
and  captured,  the  British  would  have  been  com 
pletely  routed.  Again  the  American  prisoners  were 
treated  with  savage  cruelty  until  Tecumtha,  not 
Proctor,  interfered  to  save  them.  In  a  few  days 
the  Indians  deserted  in  large  numbers,  and  Proc 
tor,  becoming  alarmed,  abandoned  the  siege,  and 
on  the  9th  of  May  retreated  to  Maiden. 

For  nearly  three  months  active  operations  were 
suspended.  In  the  latter  part  of  July,  Proctor 


528  History  of  the  United  States 

and  Tecumtha  with  a  force  of  nearly  four  thou 
sand  men  returned  to  Fort  Meigs,  now  commanded 
by  General  Clay.  For  several  days  the  British 
general  beat  about  the  American  position,  attempt 
ing  to  draw  out  the  garrison.  Failing  in  that,  he 
filed  off  with  about  half  his  forces  and  attacked 
Fort  Stephenson,  at  Lower  Sandusky,  now  Fre 
mont,  Ohio.  This  place  was  defended  by  a  hun 
dred  and  sixty  men  under  command  of  Colonel 
George  Croghan,  a  stripling  but  twenty-one  years 
of  age.  But  he  exhibited  the  skill  and  bravery 
of  a  veteran.  To  the  enemy's  summons,  accom 
panied  with  a  threat  of  massacre  in  case  of  re 
fusal,  he  answered  that  the  fort  should  be  held  as 
long  as  there  was  a  man  left  alive  within  it.  For 
a  while  the  British  cannonaded  the  ramparts  with 
out  much  effect,  and  on  the  2d  of  August  advanced 
to  carry  the  place  by  storm.  Croghan  filled  his 
only  gun,  "  Old  Betsy,"  with  slugs  and  grape-shot, 
and  masked  it  in  such  a  position  as  to  rake  the 
ditch  from  end  to  end.  The  British,  believing  the 
fort  to  be  silenced,  crowded  into  the  fatal  trench, 
and  were  swept  away  almost  to  a  man.  The  re 
pulse  was  complete.  Proctor,  fearing  the  approach 
of  Harrison,  raised  the  siege  and  returned  to 
Maiden. 

At  this  time  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  were  com 
manded  by  a  British  squadron  of  six  vessels  car 
rying  sixty-three  guns.  It  was  seen  that  a  suc 
cessful  invasion  of  Canada  could  only  be  made  by 
first  gaining  control  of  the  lake.  This  serious 
undertaking  was  imposed  on  Commodore  Oliver 


War  of  1812  529s 

H.  Perry,  of  Rhode  Island — a  young  man  not 
twenty-eight  years  old,  who  had  never  been  in  a 
naval  battle.  His  antagonist,  Commodore  Barclay, 
was  a  veteran  from  the  sea-service  of  Europe.  He 
had  lost  an  arm  with  Nelson  at  Trafalgar.  With 
indefatigable  energy  Perry  directed  the  construc 
tion  of  nine  ships,  carrying  fifty-four  guns.  The 
vessels  were  built  at  Presque  Isle,  now  Erie,  Penn 
sylvania.  When  Perry  arrived  the  timber  for  his 
fleet  was  mostly  standing  in  the  forest.  The  equip 
ment  had  to  be  drawn  by  sleds  and  wagons  from 
New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The  construction 
of  the  craft  was  protected  by  a  sand-bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Erie  River.  All  summer  the  fleet 
of  Barclay  lay  in  full  view,  like  a  watch-dog  ready 
to  pounce  upon  its  prey  when  the  new  fleet  should 
attempt  to  cross  the  bar.  But  one  Sunday,  when 
the  British  commander  had  relinquished  his  wonted 
vigilance,  Perry  succeeded  in  an  ingenious  way 
in  getting  his  vessels  upon  the  open  water.  The 
British  commander  did  not  now  seem  so  anxious 
for  the  fight.  A  month  was  spent  in  dodging  about 
over  the  lake.  At  last  on  the  loth  of  September 
the  two  fleets  met  a  short  distance  northwest  of 
Put-in  Bay.  Careful  directions  had  been  given  by 
both  commanders  for  the  impending  battle;  both 
were  resolved  on  victory.  The  fight  was  begun 
by  the  American  squadron,  Perry's  flagship,  the 
Lawrence,  leading  the  attack.  This  vessel  was 
named  for  the  brave  Captain  James  Lawrence, 
who  had  lost  his  life  a  short  time  before  in  the 
unequal  contest  of  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Shan- 


530  History  of  the  United  States 

non.  On  the  mainmast  of  this  goodly  vessel 
floated  a  blue  pennant  with  his  dying  words, 
"  Don't  give  up  the  ship/'  His  principal  antago 
nist  was  the  Detroit,  under  the  immediate  com 
mand  of  Barclay.  The  British  guns,  being  longer, 
had  the  wider  range,  and  were  better  served.  For 
two  hours  the  gallant  ship  withstood  a  most 
galling  and  terrific  fire.  Her  decks  grew  slippery 
with  the  blood  of  her  brave  crew.  Nearly  all  the 
cannon  were  dismounted,  masts  torn  away,  sailors 
killed.  No  one  was  left  to  man  the  only  gun  yet 
fit  to  be  used.  The  last  shot  was  fired  by  Com 
modore  Perry  himself,  with  the  help  of  the  chap 
lain.  The  Lawrence  was  in  ruins  and  seemed 
about  to  sink. 

Between  the  other  ships  the  battle  was  proceed 
ing  in  a  desultory  way  without  much  damage ;  but 
Barclay's  flagship  was  almost  as  nearly  wrecked  as 
the  Lawrence.  Perceiving  with  quick  eye  how  the 
battle  stood,  the  dauntless  Perry,  himself  unhurt, 
put  on  his  uniform,  seized  his  banner,  got  over 
board  into  an  open  boat,  passed  within  pistol-shot 
of  the  enemy's  ships,  a  storm  of  balls  flying  around 
him,  and  transferred  his  flag  to  the  Niagara.  A 
shout  went  up  from  the  American  fleet;  it  was  the 
signal  of  victory.  With  the  powerful  Niagara  still 
uninjured  by  the  battle,  Perry  bore  down  upon  the 
enemy's  line,  drove  right  through  the  midst,  dis 
charging  terrible  broadsides  right  and  left.  In 
fifteen  minutes  the  work  was  done;  the  British  fleet 
was  helpless.  Perry  with  a  touch  of  pride  returned 
to  the  bloody  deck  of  the  Lawrence,  and  there  re- 


War  of  1812  531 

ceived  the  surrender.  And  then  he  sent  to  General 
Harrison  this  famous  dispatch:  "  We  have  met 
the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours — two  ships,  two 
brigs,  one  schooner,  and  one  sloop. " 

This  victory  gave  the  Americans  full  control  of 
Lake  Erie.  Both  Proctor  and  Harrison  awaited 
the  result.  If  Barclay  should  win,  Proctor  would 


Commodore  Perry  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  Erie 

invade  Ohio;  if  Perry  should  prove  victorious, 
Harrison  would  conquer  Canada.  For  the  Ameri 
cans  the  way  was  now  opened.  On  the  2yth  of 
September,  Harrison's  army  was  embarked  at  San- 
dusky  Bay  and  landed  near  Maiden.  The  dis 
heartened  British  retreated  to  Sandwich,  the 
Americans  following  hard  after.  From  the  lat 
ter  place  Proctor  continued  his  retreat  to  the  river 
Thames,  and  there  faced  about  to  fight.  The  bat- 


532  History  of  the  United  States 

tlefield  was  well  chosen  by  the  British,  whose  lines 
extended  from  the  river  to  a  swamp.  Here,  on 
the  5th  of  October,  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Americans  led  by  Harrison  and  General  Shelby, 
governor  of  Kentucky.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
battle,  Proctor,  being  a  coward,  ran.  The  Brit 
ish  regulars  sustained  the  attack  with  firmness,  and 
were  only  broken  when  furiously  charged  by  the 
Kentuckians  under  Colonel  Richard  M.  Johnson. 
When  that  part  of  the  field  was  won,  the  Ameri 
cans  wheeled  against  the  Indians,  who,  to  the  num 
ber  of  fifteen  hundred,  lay  hidden  in  the  swamp 
to  the  west.  Here  the  battle  raged  fiercely.  Te- 
cumtha  had  staked  all  on  the  issue.  For  a  while 
his  war-whoop  sounded  above  the  din  of  the  con 
flict.  Presently  his  voice  was  heard  no  longer, 
for  the  great  chieftain  had  fallen.  At  the  same 
time  Colonel  Johnson  was  borne  away  severely 
wounded.  The  savages,  appalled  by  the  death  of 
their  leader,  fled  in  despair.  The  victory  was  com 
plete.  So  ended  the  campaign  in  the  West.  The 
Indian  confederacy  was  broken  to  pieces.  All  that 
Hull  had  lost  was  regained.  Michigan  was  re 
covered.  Ohio  no  longer  feared  invasion.  Perry 
swept  Lake  Erie  with  his  fleet.  Canada  was  pros 
trated  before  the  victorious  army  of  Harrison. 

Meanwhile,  the  Creeks  of  Alabama,  kinsmen  of 
the  Shawnees,  had  taken  up  arms.  They  had  no 
grievance  against  the  United  States,  but  the  elo 
quent  Tecumseh  had  influenced  them.  Besides, 
there  was  a  more  potent  influence  in  the  shape  of 
British  gold — five  dollars  for  each  American  scalp 


War  of  1812  533 

— being  the  price  offered  by  the  English  agents 
in  Florida.  In  the  latter  part  of  August,  Fort 
Mims,  forty  miles  north  of  Mobile,  was  surprised 
by  the  savages,  who  appeased  their  thirst  for  blood 
with  the  murder  of  nearly  four  hundred  people; 
not  a  woman  or  child  was  spared,  and  but  few 
of  the  men  in  the  fort  escaped.  The  news  of  the 
massacre  spread  consternation  throughout  the 
Southwest.  The  governors  of  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
and  Mississippi  Territory  made  immediate  prepa 
rations  for  invading  the  country  of  the  Creeks. 
The  Tennesseeans,  under  command  of  General 
Jackson,  were  first  to  the  rescue.  A  detachment  of 
nine  hundred  men,  led  by  General  Coffee,  reached 
the  Indian  town  of  Tallushatchee,  attacked  it, 
burned  it,  left  not  an  Indian  alive.  On  the  8th  of 
November  a  battle  was  fought  at  Talladega,  east 
of  the  Coosa,  and  the  savages  were  defeated  with 
severe  losses. 

During  the  winter  Jackson's  troops,  unprovided 
and  starving,  became  mutinous  and  were  going 
home.  But  the  general  set  the  example  of  living 
on  acorns ;  then  rode  before  the  rebellious  line  and 
threatened  with  death  the  first  mutineer  who 
stirred.  And  no  man  stirred.  At  Tohopeka, 
called  by  the  whites  the  Horseshoe  Bend,  the 
Creeks  made  their  final  stand.  Here  the  Talla- 
poosa  winds  westward  and  northward,  inclosing  a 
large  tract  of  land  in  the  form  of  a  peninsula  with 
a  narrow  neck.  This  position  the  Indians  had  for 
tified  with  more  than  their  usual  skill.  The 
whites,  led  by  General  Coffee,  surrounded  the 


534  History  of  the  United  States 

place,  so  as  to  prevent  escape  by  crossing  the  river. 
On  the  2yth  of  March,  the  main  body  of  whites 
under  General  Jackson  stormed  the  breastworks 
and  drove  the  Indians  into  the  bend.  There,  hud 
dled  together  without  the  possibility  of  escape,  a 
thousand  Creek  warriors,  with  the  women  and 
children  of  the  tribe,  met  their  doom.  The  des 
perate  Red  men  asked  no  quarter,  and  none  was 
given.  The  few  chiefs  who  were  still  abroad  sent 
in  their  submission;  the  spirit  of  the  nation  was 
completely  broken. 

On  the  25th  of  April,  1813,  General  Dearborn, 
commanding  the  Army  of  the  Center,  embarked 
his  forces  at  Sackett's  Harbor,  near  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  object  of  the 
expedition  was  to  capture  Toronto,  the  capital  of 
Upper  Canada.  Here  was  the  most  .important 
depot  of  supplies  in  British  America.  The  Ameri 
can  fleet  under  Commodore  Chauncey  had  already 
obtained  the  mastery  of  the  lake,  so  that  Dear 
born's  passage  was  unopposed.  On  the  2yth  of 
the  month  a  force  of  seventeen  hundred  men,  com 
manded  by  General  Pike,  the  explorer,  was  landed 
within  two  miles  of  Toronto.  At  the  water's  edge 
they  were  met  by  the  British.  The  Americans 
drove  the  enemy  for  a  mile  and  a  half,  stormed 
a  battery,  and  rushed  forward  to  carry  the  main 
defenses.  At  that  moment  the  British  magazine 
blew  up  with  terrific  violence.  The  assaulting  col 
umn  was  covered  with  the  debris  of  the  explosion. 
Two  hundred  men  were  killed  or  wounded.  Gen 
eral  Pike  was  fatally  injured,  but  lived  long  enough 


War  of  1812  535 

to  hear  the  shout  of  victory;  for  the  Americans, 
first  shocked  and  then  maddened  by  the  calamity, 
made  a  furious  charge  and  drove  the  British  out 
of  the  town.  General  Sheaffe  with  a  body  of  regu 
lars  escaped;  the 'rest  were  taken  prisoners.  Prop 
erty  to  the  value  of  a  half  million  dollars  was  se 
cured  to  the  victors. 

While  this  movement  was  taking  place  the  enemy 
made  a  descent  on  Sackett's  Harbor.  By  the  with 
drawal  of  the  American  forces  that  post  had  been 
left  exposed.  The  British  succeeded  in  destroying 
a  quantity  of  stores;  but  General  Brown  rallied 
the  militia,  and  drove  back  the  assailants  with  con 
siderable  loss.  Meanwhile,  the  victorious  troops 
at  Toronto  had  re-embarked  and  crossed  the  lake 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara.  On  the  27th  of 
May  the  Americans,  led  by  Generals  Chandler  and 
Winder,  crossed  the  river  and  stormed  Fort 
George,  on  the  Canada  shore.  The  British  hastily 
destroyed  their  posts  along  the  Niagara  and  re 
treated  to  Burlington  Bay,  at  the  western  extremity 
of  the  lake.  The  Americans,  pursuing  them 
thither,  were  attacked  in  the  night,  but  succeeded 
in  repulsing  the  enemy  with  loss. 

During  the  months  of  summer  military  opera 
tions  on  the  frontier  were  suspended.  After  the 
battle  of  the  Thames,  General  Harrison  had  trans 
ferred  his  forces  to  Buffalo,  and  then  resigned  his 
commission.  On  account  of  old  age  and  ill  health 
General  Dearborn  also  withdrew  from  the  service, 
and  was  succeeded  by  General  Wilkinson.  The 
next  campaign,  which  was  planned  by  General 


53 6  History  of  the  United  States 

Armstrong,  secretary  of  war,  embraced  the  con 
quest  of  Montreal.  For  this  purpose  the  Army 
of  the  Center,  under  Wilkinson,  was  ordered  to 
join  the  Army  of  the  North  at  some  convenient 
point  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  enterprise  was 
attended  with  many  difficulties  and  not  a  few  de 
lays.  Not  until  the  5th  of  November  did  a  force 
of  seven  thousand  men,  embarking  from  the  mouth 
of  French  Creek,  twenty  miles  north  of  Sackett's 
Harbor,  sail  down  the  St.  Lawrence  for  the  con 
quest  of  Montreal.  Parties  of  British,  Canadians, 
and  Indians,  gathering  on  the  northern  bank  of 
the  river,  constantly  impeded  the  progress  of  the 
expedition.  General  Brown  was  landed  with  a 
considerable  force  to  disperse  these  bands  or  drive 
the  enemy  into  the  interior.  On  the  nth  of  the 
month  a  severe  battle  was  fought  at  a  place  called 
Chrysler's  Field.  Neither  party  gained  a  victory, 
but  the  advantage  remained  with  the  British.  The 
Americans,  having  lost  nearly  three  hundred  men 
in  the  fight,  passed  down  the  river  to  St.  Regis,  on 
the  southern  shore,  where  the  forces  of  General 
Hampton  were  expected  from  Plattsburg  to  form 
a  junction  with  Wilkinson's  command.  But  Hamp 
ton  did  not  stir;  and  the  project  of  attacking  Mon 
treal  had  to  be  abandoned.  The  Americans  then 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  Fort  Covington,  at 
the  fork  of  Salmon  River,  nine  miles  from  St. 
Regis. 

In  the  meantime,  the  British  on  the  Niagara 
frontier  rallied  and  advanced  against  Fort  George. 
General  McClure,  the  commandant,  abandoned 


War  of  1812  537 

the  place  on  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  but  be 
fore  retreating  burned  the  Canadian  town  of  New 
ark.  It  cost  the  people  of  Northern  New  York 
dearly;  for  the  British  and  Indians  crossed  the 
river,  captured  Fort  Niagara,  and  fired  the  vil 
lages  of  Youngstown,  Lewiston,  and  Manchester. 
On  next  to  the  last  day  of  the  year  Black  Rock 
and  Buffalo  were  laid  in  ashes. 

In  the  sea-fights  of  1813  victory  generally  de 
clared  for  the  British.  During  the  year  both  na 
tions  wasted  much  blood  and  treasure  on  the 
ocean.  Off  the  coast  of  Demarara,  on  the  24th 
of  February,  the  sloop-of-war  Hornet,  commanded 
by  Captain  James  Lawrence,  fell  in  with  the  Brit 
ish  brig  Peacock.  The  ships  were  equally  matched. 
A  terrible  battle  of  fifteen  minutes  ensued,  and  the 
Peacock,  already  sinking,  struck  her  colors.  While 
the  Americans  were  trying  to  transfer  the  con 
quered  crew  the  ocean  yawned  and  the  brig  sank 
out  of  sight.  Nine  British  sailors  and  three  of 
Lawrence's  men  were  sucked  down  in  the  whirl 
pool. 

On  returning  to  Boston  the  command  of  the 
Chesapeake — one  of  the  best  frigates  in  the  Ameri 
can  navy — was  given  to  Lawrence,  and  again  he 
put  to  sea.  Before  sailing  he  received  a  challenge 
from  Captain  Broke,  of  the  British  frigate  Shan 
non,  to  come  out  and  fight  him.  Lawrence  ought 
not  to  have  accepted  the  banter;  for  his  equip 
ments  were  incomplete  and  his  crew  ill  assorted, 
sick,  and  half-mutinous.  But  he  was  young,  and 
the  favorite  of  the  nation;  Congress  had  bestowed 


538  History  of  the  United  States 

upon  him  a  gold  medal  for  his  victory  over  the 
Peacock;  fired  with  applause,  he  went  unhesitat 
ingly  to  meet  his  foe.  Eastward  from  Cape  Ann 
the  two  vessels  met  on  the  first  day  of  June.  The 
battle  was  obstinate,  brief,  dreadful.  In  a  short 
time  every  officer  who  could  direct  the  movements 
of  the  Chesapeake  was  either  killed  or  wounded. 
The  brave  young  Lawrence  was  struck  with  a 
musket-ball,  and  fell  dying  on  the  bloody  deck. 
As  they  bore  him  down  the  hatchway  he  gave  in 
feeble  voice  his  last  heroic  order — ever  afterward 
the  motto  of  the  American  sailor — "  Don't  Give 
Up  the  Ship !  "  The  British  were  already  leaping 
on  deck,  and  the  flag  of  England  was  hoisted  over 
the  shattered  vessel.  Both  ships  were  charnel 
houses;  but  the  Shannon  was  still  able  to  tow  her 
prize  into  the  harbor  of  Halifax.  There  the  bod 
ies  of  Lawrence  and  Ludlow,  second  in  command, 
were  tenderly  and  honorably  buried  by  the  British. 
The  next  important  naval  battle  was  fought  on 
the  1 4th  of  August  between  the  American  brig 
Argus  and  the  British  Pelican.  The  former  ves 
sel  had  made  a  daring  cruise  about  the  coasts  of 
England,  capturing  more  than  twenty  ships.  One 
of  these  contained  a  cargo  of  wine.  The  sailors 
drank  freely  and  then  set  fire  to  the  captured  ves 
sel.  The  light  revealed  her  position  to  the  Pelican 
and  soon  the  vessel  and  its  intoxicated  crew  sur 
rendered.  On  the  5th  of  September  another  Brit 
ish  brig,  the  Boxer,  cruising  off  the  coast  of  Maine, 
was  overhauled  and  captured  by  the  American  En 
terprise,  commanded  by  Captain  Burrows.  The 


War  of  1812  539 

fight  raged  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  when 
the  Boxer  surrendered.  Captain  Blyth,  the  Brit 
ish  commander,  was  killed;  and  the  gallant  Bur 
rows  received  a  mortal  wound.  The  bodies  of 
both  officers  were  taken  to  Portland  and  buried 
side  by  side  with  military  honors.  All  summer 
long  Captain  Porter  in  the  frigate  Essex  cruised 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  For  five 
months  he  was  the  terror  of  British  merchantmen 
in  those  broad  waters.  On  the  28th  of  the  fol 
lowing  March,  while  the  Essex  was  lying  in  the 
harbor  of  Valparaiso,  she  was  beset,  contrary  to 
the  law  of  nations,  by  two  powerful  British  vessels, 
the  Phasbe  and  the  Cherub.  The  Essex  had  been 
crippled  by  a  storm,  and  was  anchored  in  neutral 
waters;  in  that  condition  Captain  Porter  fought 
his  two  antagonists  until  nearly  all  of  his  men 
were  killed  or  wounded;  then  struck  his  colors  and 
surrendered.  Notwithstanding  the  losses  sustained 
by  the  American  navy,  privateers  continued  to 
scour  the  ocean  and  capture  British  vessels.  It 
is  estimated  that  sixteen  hundred  British  merchant 
men  were  captured  by  the  two  hundred  and  fifty 
ships  Congress  had  licensed  to  plow  the  seas. 

From  honorable  warfare  the  naval  officers  of 
England  stooped  to  marauding  along  the  seashore. 
The  Atlantic  coast  was  blockaded  from  New  Eng 
land  to  the  Mississippi.  Early  in  the  year  a  squad 
ron  entered  Delaware  Bay  and  anchored  before 
Lewistown,  A  requisition  on  the  inhabitants  to 
supply  the  fleet  with  provisions  was  met  with  a 
brave  refusal.  A  threat  to  burn  the  town  was  an- 


54°  History  of  the  United  States 

swered  with  a  message  of  defiance.  A  bombard 
ment  of  twenty-four  hours'  duration  followed;  the 
houses  were  much  injured,  and  the  people  fled,  car 
rying  their  property  to  places  of  safety.  Other 
British  men-of-war  entered  the  Chesapeake  and 
burned  several  villages  on  the  shores  of  the  bay. 
At  the  town  of  Hampton,  just  above  the  Roads, 
the  soldiers  and  marines  perpetrated  such  outrages 
as  covered  their  memory  with  shame.  Commodore 
Hardy,  to  whom  the  blockade  of  the  New  England 
harbors  had  been  assigned,  behaved  with  more 
humanity;  even  the  Americans  recognized  and 
praised  his  honorable  conduct.  The  year  1813 
closed  without  decisive  results. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   CAMPAIGNS   OF  '14 

IN  the  spring  of  1814  another  invasion  of  Canada 
was  planned.  The  Niagara  frontier  was  the  scene 
of  operations ;  but  there  was  much  delay  in  bring 
ing  the  scattered  detachments  of  General  Wil 
kinson's  army  into  proper  position.  Not  until  the 
3d  of  July  did  Generals  Scott  and  Ripley,  at  the 
head  of  three  thousand  men,  cross  the  Niagara 
from  Black  Rock  to  Fort  Erie.  This  post,  garri 
soned  by  two  hundred  British,  was  surrendered 
without  a  battle.  On  the  following  day  the  Ameri 
cans  advanced  down  the  river-bank  in  the  direction 


The  Campaigns  of  '14  541 

of  Chippewa  village.  Before  reaching  that  place, 
however,  they  were  met  by  the  British  army,  led 
by  General  Riall.  On  the  evening  of  the  5th  a 
severe  battle  was  fought  on  the  plain  just  south 
of  Chippewa  River.  The  Americans,  led  on  by 
Generals  Scott  and  Ripley  and  the  gallant  Major 
Jessup,  won  the  day;  but  their  loss  amounted  to 
three  hundred  and  thirty-eight  men.  The  British 
veterans,  after  more  than  five  hundred  of  their 
number  had  fallen,  were  driven  into  their  intrench- 
ments. 

General  Riall  retreated  first  to  Queenstown  and 
afterward  to  Burlington  Heights.  General  Scott, 
commanding  the  American  right,  was  detached  to 
watch  the  movements  of  the  enemy.  On  the  even 
ing  of  the  25th  of  July  he  found  himself  suddenly 
confronted  by  Riall' s  army,  strongly  posted  on 
the  high  grounds  in  sight  of  Niagara  Falls.  Here 
was  fought  the  hardest  battle  of  the  war.  A  man 
less  courageous  and  self-confident  than  Scott  would 
have  retreated;  but  with  extraordinary  daring  he 
held  his  own  until  re-enforced  by  the  other  divi 
sions  of  the  army.  The  British  reserves  were  also 
rapidly  brought  into  action.  Twilight  faded  into 
darkness,  and  still  the  battle  was  undecided.  A 
detachment  of  Americans,  getting  upon  the  Brit 
ish  rear,  captured  General  Riall  and  his  entire 
staff.  Still  the  contest  raged.  The  key  to  the 
enemy's  position  was  a  high  ground  crowned  with 
a  battery.  Calling  Colonel  James  Miller  to  his 
side  and  pointing  to  the  hill,  General  Brown  said, 
"  Colonel,  take  your  regiment  and  storm  that  bat- 


542  History  of  the  United  States 

tery."  "  I'll  try,  sir/'  was  the  answer  of  the  gal 
lant  officer;  and  he  did  take  it,  and  held  it  against 
three  desperate  assaults  of  the  British.  In  the 
last  charge  General  Drummond,  who  led,  was 
wounded,  and  the  royal  army,  numbering  fully  five 
thousand,  was  driven  from  the  field  with  a  loss  of 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight  men.  The  Ameri 
cans  engaged  in  the  battle  numbered  about  four 
thousand;  their  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  miss 
ing  was  more  than  eight  hundred. 

After  this  battle  of  Niagara,  or  Lundy's  Lane, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  General  Ripley  took  com 
mand  of  the  American  forces ;  for  Generals  Brown 
and  Scott  were  both  wounded.  It  was  deemed  pru 
dent  to  fall  back  to  Fort  Erie.  To  that  place 
General  Gaines  crossed  over  from  Buffalo,  and 
being  the  senior  officer,  assumed  command  of  the 
army.  Very  soon  General  Drummond  received 
re-enforcements,  moved  forward,  and  on  the  4th 
of  August  invested  Fort  Erie.  The  siege  continued 
for  ten  days,  and  then  the  British  attempted  to 
storm  the  works,  but  were  driven  back  with  se 
vere  losses.  But  the  enemy  was  re-enforced  and 
the  siege  resumed.  A  regular  and  destructive  bom 
bardment  was  kept  up  by  the  British,  and  was 
answered  by  the  Americans  with  equal  energy.  On 
the  28th  of  August,  General  Gaines  was  injured 
by  the  explosion  of  a  shell  and  obliged  to  relin 
quish  his  command.  General  Brown,  though  still 
suffering  from  the  wound  received  at  Niagara,  was 
again  called  to  direct  the  defenses  of  the  fort.  On 
the  iyth  of  September  a  sortie  was  ordered,  and 


The  Campaigns  of  '  14  543 

the  advanced  works  of  the  British  were  gallantly 
carried.  At  the  same  time  news  arrived  that  the 
American  general  Izard  was  approaching  from 
Plattsburg  with  strong  re-enforcements.  Alarmed 
at  the  threatening  aspect  of  affairs,  the  British 
raised  the  siege  and  retreated  to  Fort  George.  On 
the  5th  of  November,  Fort  Erie  was  evacuated  and 
destroyed  by  the  Americans,  who  then  recrossed 
the  Niagara  and  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
Black  Rock  and  Buffalo.  So  ended  the  war  in  the 
country  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

The  winter  of  1813-14  was  passed  by  the  Army 
of  the  North  at  French's  Mills,  afterward  called 
Fort  Covington.  In  the  latter  part  of  February, 
General  Wilkinson  advanced  his  forces  to  Platts 
burg,  and  in  the  following  month  began  an  inva 
sion  of  Canada.  At  La  Colle,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Sorel,  he  encountered  a  force  of  the  enemy, 
made  an  imprudent  attack,  and  was  defeated. 
Falling  back  to  Plattsburg,  he  was  superseded  by 
General  Izard.  How  that  officer  marched  to  the 
relief  of  General  Brown  at  Fort  Erie  has  already 
been  narrated.  The  remaining  division  of  the 
northern  army,  fifteen  hundred  strong,  was  left 
under  command  of  General  Macomb  at  Plattsburg. 
At  this  time  the  American  flotilla  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain  was  commanded  by  Commodore  MacDon- 
ough.  For  the  purpose  of  destroying  this  fleet 
and  obtaining  control  of  the  lake,  the  British  gen 
eral  Prevost  advanced  into  Northern  New  York 
at  the  head  of  fourteen  thousand  men,  and  at  the 
same  time  ordered  Commodore  Downie  to  ascend 


544  History  of  the  United  States 

the  Sorel  with  his  fleet.  The  possession  of  Lake 
Champlain  and  New  York  was  important  to  the 
British.  Their  army  had  been  depending  for  its 
supplies  upon  this  section.  Anti-war  Americans 
did  not  hesitate  to  sell  their  cattle  and  other  provi 
sions  to  their  country's  enemy.  Also,  since  the 
British  had  taken  Maine,  they  had  determined  to 
keep  it  at  all  hazards  at  the  end  of  the  war.  New 
York  must  therefore  be  held  as  a  military  base. 

The  invading  army  reached  Plattsburg  without 
opposition.  Commodore  MacDonough's  squad 
ron  lay  in  the  bay.  On  the  6th  of  September,  Gen 
eral  Macomb  retired  with  his  small  but  courageous 
army  to  the  south  bank  of  the  Saranac,  which 
skirted  the  village.  On  came  the  British,  entered 
the  town,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  river,  but 
were  driven  back.  For  four  days  they  renewed 
their  efforts;  the  Americans  had  torn  up  the 
bridges,  and  a  passage  could  not  be  effected.  The 
British  fleet  was  now  ready  for  action,  and  a  gen 
eral  battle  by  land  and  water  was  planned  for  the 
nth.  Prevost's  army,  arranged  in  three  columns, 
was  to  sweep  across  the  Saranac  and  carry 
Macomb's  position,  while  Downie's  powerful  flo 
tilla  was  to  bear  down  on  MacDonough.  The 
naval  battle  began  first,  and  was  obstinately  fought 
for  two  hours  and  a  half.  At  the  end  of  that 
time  Downie  and  many  of  his  officers  had  been 
killed;  the  heavier  British  vessels  were  disabled 
and  obliged  to  strike  their  colors.  The  smaller 
ships  escaped;  for  the  American  brigs  were  so 
badly  crippled  that  pursuit  could  not  be  made. 


The  Campaigns  of  '14.  545 

Nevertheless,  the  victory  on  the  lake  was  com 
plete  and  glorious.  The  news  was  carried  ashore, 
where  the  Americans  were  bravely  contesting  the 
passage  of  the  river  against  overwhelming  num 
bers.  At  one  ford  the  British  column  succeeded 
in  crossing;  but  the  tidings  from  the  lake  fired  the 
militia  with  ardor;  they  made  a  rush,  and  the 
enemy  was  driven  back.  Prevost,  after  losing 
nearly  two  thousand  five  hundred  men  and  squan 
dering  two  and  a  half  million  dollars  in  a  fruitless 
campaign,  retired  precipitately  to  Canada.  The 
ministry  of  England,  made  wise  by  the  disasters  of 
this  invasion,  began  to  devise  measures  looking  to 
peace. 

In  the  country  of  the  Chesapeake  the  scenes  of 
the  previous  year  were  renewed  by  the  British. 
Late  in  the  summer  Admiral  Cochrane  arrived  off 
the  coast  of  Virginia  with  an  armament  of  twenty- 
one  vessels.  General  Ross  with  an  army  of  four 
thousand  veterans,  freed  from  service  in  Europe, 
came  with  the  fleet.  The  American  squadron, 
commanded  by  Commodore  Barney,  was  unable  to 
oppose  so  powerful  a  force.  The  enemy's  flotilla 
entered  the  Chesapeake  with  the  purpose  of  at 
tacking  Washington  and  Baltimore.  The  larger 
division  of  the  British  fleet  sailed  into  the  Patuxent, 
and  on  the  I9th  of  August  the  forces  of  General 
Ross  were  landed  at  the  town  of  Benedict.  Com 
modore  Barney  was  obliged  to  blow  up  his  vessels 
and  take  to  the  shore.  From  Benedict  the  Brit 
ish  advanced  against  Washington.  At  Bladens- 
burg,  six  miles  northeast  of  the  capital,  they  were 


546  History  of  the  United  States 

met,  on  the  24th  of  the  month,  by  the  militia  and 
the  marines  under  Barney.  Here  a  battle  was 
fought.  The  undisciplined  militia  behaved  badly. 
Barney's  seamen  were  overpowered  by  the  British, 
and  himself  taken  prisoner.  The  news  of  the  de 
feat  was  rapidly  borne  to  Washington.  The 
President,  the  cabinet  officers,  and  the  people  be 
took  themselves  to  flight,  and  Ross  marched  unop 
posed  into  the  city.  He  had  been  ordered  by  his 
superiors  to  use  the  torch,  and  the  work  of  de 
struction  was  accordingly  begun.  All  the  public 
buildings  except  the  Patent  Office  were  burned. 
The  beautiful  but  unfinished  Capitol  and  the  Presi 
dent's  house  were  left  a  mass  of  blackened  ruins. 
Mrs.  Madison  had  the  presence  of  mind  to  secure 
the  famous  picture  of  Washington  by  Stuart  and 
the  original  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ 
ence.  Many  private  edifices  were  also  destroyed; 
but  General  Ross,  himself  a  humane  man,  did  less 
than  he  was  ordered  to  do.* 

Five  days  after  the  capture  of  Washington,  a 
portion  of  the  British  fleet,  ascending  the  Poto 
mac,  reached  Alexandria.  The  inhabitants  of  that 
town,  in  order  to  avoid  the  fate  of  the  capital, 
purchased  the  forbearance  of  the  enemy  by  the 
surrender  of  twenty-one  ships,  sixteen  thousand 
barrels  of  flour,  and  a  thousand  hogsheads  of  to 
bacco.  Baltimore  redeemed  herself  more  bravely. 
Against  that  city,  after  the  capture  of  Washington, 

*An  excuse  for  this  outrageous  barbarism  was  found  in  the 
previous  conduct  of  the  Americans,  who,  at  Toronto  and  other 
places  on  the  Canadian  frontier,  had  behaved  but  little  better. 


The  Campaigns  of  '14  547 

General  Ross  proceeded  with  his  army  and  fleet. 
Meanwhile,  the  militia,  to  the  number  of  ten  thou 
sand,  had  gathered  under  command  of  General 
Samuel  Smith,  a  Revolutionary  veteran.  On  the 
1 2th  of  September  the  British  were  landed  at 
North  Point,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Patapsco;  and 
the  fleet  began  the  ascent  of  the  river.  The  land 
forces,  after  marching  about  halfway  to  Balti 
more,  were  met  by  the  Americans  under  General 
Strieker.  A  skirmish  ensued  in  which  General 
Ross  was  killed;  but  Colonel  Brooks  assumed  com 
mand  of  the  invading  army,  and  the  march  con 
tinued.  When  approaching  the  city,  the  British 
came  upon  the  American  lines  and  were  brought  to 
a  halt  by  a  severe  cannonade.  General  Strieker, 
however,  ordered  his  men  to  fall  back  to  a  second 
line  of  defenses,  from  which  they  gave  the  enemy 
a  permanent  check. 

Meanwhile,  the  British  squadron  had  ascended 
the  Patapsco  and  begun  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
McHenry,  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  From 
sunrise  of  the  i3th  until  after  midnight  the  guns 
of  the  fleet  poured  a  tempest  of  shot  and  shells 
upon  the  fortress.*  At  the  end  of  that  time  the 
soldiers  of  the  garrison  were  as  full  of  spirit  and 
the  works  as  strong  as  at  the  beginning.  It  was 
plain  that  the  British  had  undertaken  more  than 
they  could  accomplish.  Disheartened  and  baffled, 


*  During  the  night  of  this  bombardment,  Francis  S.  Key,  de 
tained  on  board  a  British  ship  and  watching  the  American  flag 
over  Fort  McHenry — seen  at  intervals  by  the  glare  of  rockets 
and  the  flash  of  cannon — composed  The  Star-spangled  Banner. 


548  History  of  the  United  States 

they  ceased  to  fire.  The  land  forces  retired  from 
before  the  American  intrenchments  and  re-em 
barked.  The  siege  of  Baltimore  was  at  an  end. 
General  Ross  was,  himself,  numbered  among  the 
dead. 

New  England  did  not  escape  the  ravages  of  war. 
On  the  9th  and  loth  of  August  the  village  of 
Stonington,  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Connecti 
cut,  was  bombarded  by  Commodore  Hardy;  but 
the  British,  attempting  to  land,  were  beaten  back 
by  the  militia.  The  fisheries  of  the  New  England 
coast  were  for  the  most  part  broken  up.  The  salt 
works  at  Cape  Cod  escaped  only  by  the  payment 
of  heavy  ransoms.  All  the  principal  harbors  from 
Maine  to  Delaware  were  under  a  rigorous  block 
ade,  and  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Eastern 
States  was  totally  destroyed.  The  beacons  in  the 
lighthouses  were  allowed  to  burn  out,  and  a  gen 
eral  gloom  settled  over  the  country. 

From  the  beginning  many  of  the  people  of  New 
England  had  opposed  the  war.  Their  interests 
centered  in  ships  and  factories;  the  former  were 
captured  at  sea  and  the  latter  came  to  a  standstill. 
Industry  was  paralyzed.  The  members  of  the 
Federal  party  cried  out  against  the  continuance  of 
the  contest.  The  legislature  of  Massachusetts  ad 
vised  the  calling  of  a  convention.  The  other  East 
ern  States  responded  to  the  call;  and  on  the  I4th 
of  December  the  delegates  assembled  at  Hartford. 
The  objects  of  the  convention  were  not  very 
clearly  expressed;  but  opposition  to  the  war  and 
the  policy  of  the  administration  was  the  leading 


The  Campaigns  of  '  14  549 

principle.  The  leaders  of  the  Democratic  party, 
who  supported  the  war  policy  of  the  government, 
did  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  purposes  of  the 
assembly  were  disloyal  and  treasonable.  Be  that 
as  it  may,  the  convention  ruined  the  Federal  party. 
After  remaining  in  session  with  closed  doors  for 
nearly  three  weeks,  the  delegates  published  an  ad 
dress  more  moderate  and  just  than  had  been  ex 
pected;  and  then  adjourned.  But  little  hope  of 
political  preferment  remained  for  those  who  par 
ticipated  in  the  Hartford  convention. 

During  the  progress  of  the  war  the  Spanish  au 
thorities  of  Florida  sympathized  with  the  British. 
In  the  month  of  August  a  detachment  of  the  ene 
my's  fleet  was  allowed  by  the  commandant  of 
Pensacola  to  use  that  post  for  the  purpose  of  fit 
ting  out  an  expedition  against  Fort  Bowyer, 
commanding  the  entrance  to  the  bay  of  Mobile. 
On  the  1 5th  of  September  the  latter  post  was  at 
tacked,  but  the  assailants  were  driven  off.  General 
Jackson,  who  at  that  time  commanded  the  Ameri 
can  forces  in  the  South,  remonstrated  with  the 
Spaniards  against  this  violation  of  neutrality,  but 
received  no  satisfaction.  Jackson,  whose  way  it 
was  to  mete  out  summary  justice  to  offenders, 
marched  a  force  against  Pensacola,  stormed  the 
town,  and  drove  the  British  out  of  Florida.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  last  campaign  of  the  war. 

After  the  taking  of  Pensacola,  General  Jackson 
returned  to  his  headquarters  at  Mobile.  There  he 
learned  that  the  British  were  making  formidable 
preparations  for  the  conquest  of  Louisiana.  Re- 


550  History  of  the  United  States 

pairing  at  once  to  New  Orleans,  he  assumed  con 
trol  of  the  city,  declared  martial  law,  mustered  the 
militia,  and  adopted  the  most  vigorous  measures 
for  repelling  the  invasion.  From  La  Fitte,  chief 
of  a  band  of  smugglers  in  the  Bay  of  Barataria,  he 
obtained  information  of  the  enemy's  plans.  The 
British  army,  numbering  twelve  thousand,  came  in 
a  fleet  of  fifty  vessels  from  Jamaica.  Sir  Edward 
Packenham,  brother-in-law  of  the  duke  of  Wel 
lington,  was  commander  of  the  invading  forces. 
On  the  loth  of  December  the  squadron  entered 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Borgne,  sixty  miles  northeast 
of  New  Orleans.  Four  days  afterward  a  flotilla 
of  gunboats  which  had  been  placed  to  guard  the 
lake  was  captured  by  the  British,  but  not  until  a 
severe  loss  had  been  inflicted  on  the  enemy. 

On  the  22d  of  the  month  Packenham's  advance 
reached  the  Mississippi  nine  miles  below  the  city. 
A  detachment  was  sent  to  the  western  bank  of  the 
river,  but  this  operation  was  checked  by  a  counter 
movement  on  the  part  of  the  Americans.  On  the 
night  of  the  23d  General  Jackson  sent  a  schooner 
down  the  Mississippi  to  bombard  the  British  camp, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  and  General  Coffee  ad 
vanced  with  two  thousand  Tennessee  riflemen  to 
attack  Packenham's  camp  in  front.  After  a  bloody 
assault  Jackson  was  obliged  to  retire,  the  enemy 
losing  most  in  the  engagement.  On  the  following 
day  Jackson  fell  back  and  took  a  strong  position 
along  the  canal,  four  miles  below  the  city.  Pack 
enham  advanced,  and  on  the  28th  cannonaded  the 
American  position  with  but  little  effect.  On  New 


The  Campaigns  of  '14  551 

Year's  day  the  attack  was  renewed.  The  heavy 
guns  of  the  British  had  now  been  brought  into  po 
sition  ;  but  the  Americans  easily  held  their  ground, 
and  the  enemy  was  again  driven  back.  Packen- 
ham  now  made  arrangements  to  lead  his  whole 
army  in  a  grand  assault  on  the  American  lines. 

Jackson  was  ready.  Earthworks  had  been  con 
structed,  and  a  long  line  of  cotton-bales  and  sand 
bags  thrown  up  for  protection.  On  the  morning 
of  the  memorable  8th  of  January  the  British 
moved  forward.  They  went  to  a  terrible  fate. 
The  battle  began  with  the  light  of  early  morning, 
and  was  ended  before  nine  o'clock.  Packenham 
hurled  column  after  column  against  the  American 
position,  and  column  after  column  was  smitten 
with  irretrievable  ruin.  Jackson's  men,  behind 
their  breastworks,  were  almost  entirely  secure  from 
the  enemy's  fire,  while  every  discharge  of  the  Ten 
nessee  and  Kentucky  rifles  told  with  awful  effect 
on  the  exposed  veterans  of  England.  Packenham, 
trying  to  rally  his  men,  was  killed;  General  Gibbs, 
second  in  command,  was  mortally  wounded.  Gen 
eral  Keene  fell  disabled;  only  General  Lambert 
was  left  to  call  the  shattered  fragments  of  the  army 
from  the  field.  Never  was  there  in  a  great  bat 
tle  such  disparity  of  losses.  Of  the  British  fully 
seven  hundred  were  killed,  fourteen  hundred 
wounded,  and  five  hundred  taken  prisoners.  The 
American  loss  amounted  to  eight  killed  and  thir 
teen  wounded. 

After  the  battle  Jackson  granted  a  truce  for  the 
burial  of  the  British  dead.  That  done,  General 


552  History  of  the  United  States 

Lambert  recalled  the  detachment  from  the  west 
bank  of  the  river  and  retired  with  his  ruined  army 
to  Lake  Borgne.  At  Fort  Bowyer  he  received 
the  news  of  peace.  Jackson  marched  into  New 
Orleans  with  his  victorious  army,  and  was  received 
with  unbounded  enthusiasm.  Such,  so  far  as 
operations  by  land  were  concerned,  was  the  close 
of  the  war.  On  the  ocean  hostilities  lingered  until 
spring.  On  the  2Oth  of  February  the  American 
frigate  Constitution,  cruising  off  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
caught  sight  of  two  hostile  vessels,  gave  chase, 
and  after  a  severe  fight  captured  them.  They 
proved  to  be  British  brigs — the  Cyane,  of  thirty- 
six  guns,  and  the  Levant,  of  eighteen.  On  the 
23d  of  March  the  American  Hornet,  commanded 
by  Captain  Biddle,  ended  the  conflict  by  capturing 
the  British  Penguin  off  the  coast  of  Brazil. 

Already  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been  made  and 
ratified.  Both  nations  had  long  desired  such  a  re 
sult.  In  the  summer  of  1814  American  commis 
sioners  were  sent  to  Ghent,  in  Belgium,  and  were 
there  met  by  Lord  Gambier,  Henry  Goulburn,  and 
William  Adams,  ambassadors  of  Great  Britain. 
The  agents  of  the  United  States  were  John  Quincy 
Adams,  James  A.  Bayard,  Henry  Clay,  Jonathan 
Russell,  and  Albert  Gallatin.  Several  months 
were  spent  in  negotiations;  and  on  the  24th  of  De 
cember,  1814,  a  treaty  was  agreed  to  and  signed. 
In  both  countries,  but  especially  in  the  United 
States,  the  news  was  received  with  deep  satisfac 
tion.  On  the  1 8th  of  February  the  treaty  was  rati 
fied  by  the  Senate,  and  peace  was  publicly  pro- 


The  Campaigns  of  '  14  553 

claimed.  It  was  in  the  interim  between  the 
conclusion  of  the  treaty  and  the  reception  of  the 
news  in  the  United  States  that  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans  was  fought.  A  telegraph  would  have 
saved  all  that  bloodshed. 

There  never  was  a  more  absurd  treaty  than  that 
of  Ghent.  Its  only  significance  was  that  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  having  been  at  war, 
agreed  to  be  at  peace.  Not  one  of  the  distinctive 
issues  to  decide  which  the  war  had  been  undertaken 
was  settled  or  even  mentioned.  Of  the  impressment 
of  American  seamen  not  a  word  was  said.  The 
wrongs  done  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
were  not  referred  to.  The  rights  of  neutral  na 
tions  were  left  as  undetermined  as  before.  Of 
"  free  trade  and  sailors'  rights,"  which  had  been 
the  battle-cry  of  the  American  navy,  no  mention 
was  made.  The  principal  articles  of  the  compact 
were  devoted  to  the  settlement  of  unimportant 
boundaries  and  the  possession  of  some  petty  islands 
in  the  Bay  of  Passamaquoddy.  There  is  little 
doubt,  however,  that  at  the  time  of  the  treaty 
Great  Britain  gave  the  United  States  a  private 
assurance  that  impressment  and  the  other  wrongs 
complained  of  by  the  Americans  should  be  prac 
ticed  no  more.  For  nearly  a  century  vessels  bear 
ing  the  flag  of  the  United  States  have  been  secure 
from  such  insults  as  caused  the  war  of  1812. 

At  the  close  of  the  conflict  the  country  was  bur 
dened  with  a  debt  of  a  hundred  million  dollars. 
The  monetary  affairs  of  the  nation  were  in  a  de 
plorable  condition.  The  charter  of  the  Bank  of 


554  History  of  the  United  States 

the  United  States  expired  in  1811,  and  in  the  fol 
lowing  years  the  other  banks  of  the  country  were 
obliged  to  suspend  specie  payment.  The  people 
were  thus  deprived  of  the  currency  necessary  for 
the  transaction  of  business.  Domestic  commerce 
was  paralyzed  by  the  want  of  money,  and  foreign 
trade  destroyed  by  the  enemy's  fleet.  In  the  year 
after  the  close  of  the  war  a  bill  was  passed  by 
Congress  to  recharter  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States.  The  measure  being  objectionable,  the 
President  interposed  his  veto;  but  in  the  follow 
ing  session  the  bill  was  again  passed  in  an  amended 
form.  The  capital  was  fixed  at  thirty-five  million 
dollars.  The  central  banking-house  was  estab 
lished  at  Philadelphia,  and  branches  were  au 
thorized  at  various  other  cities.  On  the  4th  of 
March,  1817,  the  new  financial  institution  went 
into  operation;  and  the  business  and  credit  of  the 
country  were  thereby  greatly  improved.  Mean 
while,  the  United  States  had  been  engaged  in  a 
foreign  war. 

During  the  conflict  with  Great  Britain,  the  Al- 
gerine  pirates  renewed  their  depredations  on 
American  commerce.  As  soon  as  the  treaty  of 
Ghent  was  concluded  the  government  of  the  United 
States  ordered  Commodore  Decatur,  commanding 
a  fleet  of  nine  vessels,  to  proceed  to  the  Mediter 
ranean  and  chastise  the  Barbary  sea-robbers  into 
submission.  On  the  xyth  of  June,  Decatur,  cruis 
ing  near  Gibraltar,  fell  in  with  the  principal 
frigate  of  the  Algerine  squadron,  and  after  a  se 
vere  fight  of  twenty  minutes  compelled  the  Moor- 


The  Campaigns  of  '  14  555 

ish  ship  to  surrender.  Thirty  of  the  piratical  crewr 
including  the  admiral,  were  killed,  and  more  than 
four  hundred  taken  prisoners.  On  the  I9th  De- 
catur  captured  another  frigate,  bearing  twenty 
guns  and  a  hundred  and  eight  men.  A  few  days 
afterward  he  sailed  into  the  Bay  of  Algiers,  and 
dictated  to  the  humbled  and  terrified  dey  the  terms 
of  a  treaty.  The  Moorish  emperor  was  obliged 
to  release  his  American  prisoners  without  ransom, 
to  relinquish  all  claims  to  tribute,  and  to  give  a 
pledge  that  his  ships  should  trouble  American 
merchantmen  no  more.  Decatur  next  sailed 
against  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  compelled  both  of  these 
states  to  give  pledges  of  good  conduct,  and  to  pay 
large  sums  for  former  violations  of  international 
law.  From  that  day  until  the  present  the  Bar- 
bary  powers  have  had  a  wTholesome  dread  of  the 
American  flag. 

The  close  of  Madison's  troubled  administra 
tion  was  signalized  by  the  admission  of  Indiana — 
the  smallest  of  the  Western  States — into  the 
Union.  The  new  commonwealth,  admitted  in  De 
cember,  1816,  came  with  an  area  of  nearly  thirty- 
four  thousand  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
ninety-eight  thousand.  About  the  same  time  was 
founded  the  Colonization  Society  of  the  United 
States.  Many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
America  became  members  of  the  association,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  provide  somewhere  in  the 
world  a  refuge  for  free  persons  of  color.  Liberia, 
on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  was  finally  selected 
as  the  seat  of  the  proposed  colony.  A  republican 


55 6  History  of  the  United  States 

form  of  government  was  established  there,  and 
immigrants  arrived  in  sufficient  numbers  to  found 
a  flourishing  negro  State.  The  capital  was  named 
Monrovia,  in  honor  of  James  Monroe,  who,  in 
the  fall  of  1816,  was  elected  as  Madison's  suc 
cessor  in  the  presidency.  At  the  same  time  Daniel 
D.  Tompkins,  of  New  York,  was  chosen  Vice- 
President. 


CHAPTER  VII 

MONROE'S  ADMINISTRATION 

IN  its  political  principles  the  new  administration 
was  Democratic.  The  policy  of  Madison  was 
adopted  by  his  successor.  But  the  stormy  times  of 
Madison  gave  place  to  many  years  of  almost  un 
broken  peace.  The  new  President 
was  a  native  of  Virginia;  a  man  of 
moderate  talents  and  accomplish 
ments.  He  had  been  a  Revolution 
ary  soldier;  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Representatives;  a  senator;  gov 
ernor  of  Virginia ;  envoy  to  France ; 
James  Monroe  minister  to  England;  secretary  of 
President  ,817-25  ^Q  under  Madison.  The  mem- 
bers  of  the  new  cabinet  were — John  Quincy  Adams, 
secretary  of  state;  William  H.  Crawford,  secre 
tary  of  the  treasury;  John  C.  Calhoun,  secretary 
of  war;  B.  W.  Crowninshield,  secretary  of  the 
navy;  William  Wirt,  attorney-general.  The  ani- 


Monroe's  Administration  557 

mosities  and  party  strifes  of  the  previous  years 
were  in  a  measure  forgotten.  Statesmen  of  all 
parties  devoted  their  energies  to  the  payment  of 
the  national  debt.  It  was  a  herculean  task;  but 
commerce  revived;  the  government  was  econom 
ically  administered;  population  increased;  wealth 
flowed  in ;  and  in  a  few  years  the  debt  was  greatly 
reduced. 

The  most  important  financial  event  at  the  close 
of  the  war  was  the  re-establishing  of  the  United 
States  Bank.  The  charter  of  the  old  bank,  which 
Hamilton  had  founded,  had  expired  in  1811  and  a 
recharter  had  been  denied  by  Congress.  But  in 
1 8 1 6,  when  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  urged  that 
the  bank  be  re-established,  Congress  passed  the  bill 
and  granted  a  charter  for  twenty  years.  The  cap^ 
ital  stock  was  thirty-five  million  dollars,  seven  mil 
lions  of  which  was  taken  by  the  government.  The 
new  bank  had  a  magic  effect  in  restoring  public 
confidence. 

Closely  associated  with  this  question  was  that 
of  the  tariff.  Before  the  war  there  were  two  great 
industries  of  the  American  people — agriculture 
and  commerce.  To  these  must  now  be  added  a 
third — manufacturing.  The  embargo  and  the  war 
had  forced  the  people  to  manufacturing  in  order  to 
supply  their  own  wants.  But  on  the  coming  of 
peace  the  country  was  flooded  with  English  goods 
and  sold  purposely  at  a  rate  so  low  that  the  Ameri 
can  manufacturers  could  not  compete  with  their 
British  rivals.  To  meet  these  conditions  there  was 
a  loud  clamor  for  a  higher  tariff  on  foreign  im- 


558  History  of  the  United  States 

ports.  Congress  answered  by  passing  the  tariff 
law  of  1816.  By  this  tariff  the  duties  were  raised 
to  an  average  of  about  twenty  per  cent,  and  the 
result  proved  very  beneficial  to  the  infant  indus 
tries  that  had  sprung  up  all  over  the  country.  From 
that  day  to  the  present  the  United  States  has  stead 
ily  pressed  forward  in  this  field  of  industry  and 
now  stands  second  to  none  as  a  manufacturing 
nation. 

In  December  of  1817  the  western  portion  of 
Mississippi  Territory  was  organized  as  the  State 
of  Mississippi  and  admitted  into  the  Union.  The 
new  State  contained  an  area  of  forty-seven  thou 
sand  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  sixty-five 
thousand  souls.  At  the  same  time  the  attention 
of  the  government  was  called  to  a  nest  of  buc 
caneers  who  had  established  themselves  on  Amelia 
Island,  off  the  northeastern  coast  of  Florida.  They 
claimed  to  be  acting  under  the  authority  of  some 
of  the  South  American  republics,  but  were  in  re 
ality  pirates.  An  armament  was  accordingly  sent 
against  them,  and  the  lawless  establishment  was 
broken  up.  Another  rendezvous  of  the  same  sort, 
on  the  island  of  Galveston,  off  the  coast  of  Texas, 
was  also  suppressed. 

In  the  first  year  of  Monroe's  administration  the 
question  of  internal  improvements  began  to  be 
much  agitated.  The  territorial  vastness  of  the 
country  made  it  necessary  to  devise  suitable  means 
of  communication  between  the  distant  parts. 
Without  railroads  and  canals  it  was  evident  that 
the  products  of  the  great  interior  could  never  reach 


Monroe's  Administration 


559 


a  market.  Had  Congress  a  right  to  vote  money  to 
make  the  needed  improvements?  Jefferson  and 
Madison  had  both  answered  the  question  in  the 
negative.  Monroe  held  similar  views;  and  a  ma 
jority  of  Congress  voted  against  the  proposed 
appropriations.  In  one  instance,  however,  a  bill 
was  passed  appropriating 
the  means  necessary  for 
the  construction  of  a  na 
tional  road  across  the  Al- 
leghanies,  from  Cumber 
land  to  Wheeling.  For 
many  years  appropria 
tions  were  made  for  this 
road,  and  it  was  con 
tinued  to  Illinois.  But  at 
length  it  was  turned  over 
to  the  States  in  which  it 

lies,  and  internal  improvements  by  the  national 
government  were  confined  chiefly  to  rivers  and 
harbors.  Other  forms  of  internal  improvements 
were  referred  to  the  several  States ;  and  New  York 
took  the  lead  by  constructing  a  splendid  canal  from 
Buffalo  to  Albany,  a  distance  of  three  hundred  and 
sixty-three  miles.  The  cost  of  this  important  work 
was  more  than  seven  and  a  half  million  dollars, 
and  the  eight  years  of  Monroe's  administration 
were  occupied  in  completing  it. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1817  the  Seminole  In 
dians  on  the  frontiers  of  Georgia  and  Alabama 
became  hostile.  Some  bad  negroes  and  treacherous 
Creeks  joned  the  savages  in  their  depredations. 


Locks  in  the  Erie  Canal 


560  History  of  the  United  States 

General  Gaines,  commandant  of  a  post  on  Flint 
River,  was  sent  into  the  Seminole  country,  but  after 
destroying  a  few  villages  his  forces  were  found 
inadequate  to  conquer  the  Red  men.  General 
Jackson  was  then  ordered  to  collect  from  the  adja 
cent  States  a  sufficient  army  and  reduce  the  Sem- 
inoles  to  submission.  Instead  of  following  his 
directions,  that  stern  and  self-willed  man  mustered 
a  thousand  riflemen  from  West  Tennessee,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1818  overran  the  hostile  country  with 
little  opposition.  The  Indians  were  afraid  to  fight 
the  man  whom  they  had  named  the  Big  Knife. 

While  engaged  in  this  expedition  against  the 
Seminoles,  Jackson  entered  Florida  and  took  pos 
session  of  the  Spanish  post  at  St.  Mark's.  He 
deemed  it  necessary  to  do  so  in  order  to  succeed 
in  suppressing  the  savages.  The  Spanish  troops 
stationed  at  St.  Mark's  were  removed  to  Pensa- 
cola;  and  two  Englishmen,  named  Arbuthnot  and 
Ambrister,  who  fell  into  Jackson's  hands,  were 
charged  with  inciting  the  Seminoles  to  insurrection, 
tried  by  a  court-martial,  and  hanged.  Jackson 
then  advanced  against  Pensacola,  captured  the 
town,  besieged  and  took  the  fortress  of  Barancas, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  bay,  and  sent  the  Spanish 
authorities  to  Havana.  These  summary  proceed 
ings  excited  much  comment  throughout  the  coun 
try.  The  enemies  of  General  Jackson  condemned 
him  in  unmeasured  terms;  but  the  President  and 
Congress  sustained  him.  A  resolution  of  censure, 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Representatives,  was 
voted  down  by  a  large  majority. 


Monroe's  Administration  561 

Seeing  that  the  defense  of  such  a  province  would 
cost  more  than  it  was  worth,  the  Spanish  monarch 
proposed  to  cede  the  territory  to  the  United  States. 
For  this  purpose  negotiations  were  opened  at 
Washington  city;  and  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1819,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  East  and 
West  Florida  and  the  outlying  islands  were  surren 
dered  to  the  American  government.  In  considera 
tion  of  the  cession  the  United  States  agreed  to  relin 
quish  all  claim  to  the  territory  of  Texas  and  to  pay 
to  American  citizens,  for  depredations  committed 
by  Spanish  vessels,  a  sum  not  exceeding  five  million 
dollars.  By  the  same  treaty  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Mexico  was  fixed  at  the  river  Sabine. 

Monroe's  administration  was  noted  for  the  great 
number  of  new  members  which  were  added  to  the 
Union.  In  1818,  Illinois,  the  twenty-first  State, 
embracing  an  area  of  more  than  fifty-five  thousand 
square  miles,  was  organized  and  admitted.  The 
population  of  the  new  commonwealth  was  forty- 
seven  thousand.  In  December  of  the  following 
year  Alabama  was  added,  with  a  population  of  a 
hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand,  and  an  area  of 
nearly  fifty-one  thousand  square  miles.  About  the 
same  time  Arkansas  Territory  was  organized  out 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Territory  of  Mis 
souri.  Early  in  1820  the  province  of  Maine,  which 
had  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts 
since  1652,  was  separated  from  that  government 
and  admitted  into  the  Union.  At  the  time  of  ad 
mission  the  population  of  the  new  State  had 
reached  two  hundred  and  ninety-eight  thousand ;  its 


562  History  of  the  United  States 

territory  embraced  nearly  thirty  thousand  square 
miles.  In  August  of  1821  the  great  State  of  Mis 
souri,  with  an  area  of  sixty-seven  thousand  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  seventy-four  thousand, 
was  admitted  as  the  twenty-fourth  member  of  the 
Union;  but  the  admission  was  attended  with  a  po 
litical  agitation  so  violent  as  to  threaten  the  peace 
of  the  country. 

When  the  bill  to  admit  Missouri  was  brought 
before  Congress,  a  proposition  was  made  in  that 
body  to  prohibit  slavery  in  the  new  State.  This 
measure  was  strongly  supported  by  the  free  States 
of  the  North,  and  as  strongly  opposed  by  the  slave- 
holding  States  of  the  South.  The  country  was  sec- 
tionally  divided.  Congress  was  distracted  with 
long  and  angry  debates  in  which  the  whole  question 
of  slavery  was  discussed.  At  last  a  compromise, 
suggested  by  the  Senate,  was  agreed  to.  As  this 
matter  had  to  be  arranged  by  a  joint  committee  of 
which  Henry  Clay  was  chairman,  he  has  usually 
been  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  compromise. 
This  measure,  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
was  one  of  the  most  important  acts  of  American 
legislation.  The  principal  conditions  of  the  plan 
were  these:  first,  the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a 
slaveholding  State;  secondly,  the  division  of  the 
rest  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  by  the  parallel  of 
thirty-six  degrees  and  thirty  minutes;  thirdly,  the 
admission  of  new  States,  to  be  formed  out  of  the 
territory  south  of  that  line,  with  or  without  slavery, 
as  the  people  might  determine ;  fourthly,  the  prohi 
bition  of  slavery  in  all  the  new  States  to  be  organ- 


Monroe's  Administration  563 

ized  out  of  territory  north  of  the  dividing  line. 
By  this  compromise  the  slavery  agitation  was  al 
layed  for  some  years. 

Meanwhile,  the  country  had  measurably  recov 
ered  from  the  effects  of  the  late  war.  With  peace 
and  plenty  the  resources  of  the  nation  were  rapidly 
augmented.  Toward  the  close  of  his  term  Mon 
roe's  administration  grew  into  high  favor  with 
the  people;  and  in  the  fall  of  1820  he  was  re- 
elected  with  great  unanimity.  As  Vice-President, 
Mr.  Tompkins  was  also  chosen  for  a  second  term. 
Scarcely  had  the  excitement  over  the  admission  of 
Missouri  subsided  when  the  attention  of  the  gov 
ernment  was  called  to  an  alarming  system  of  piracy 
which  had  sprung  up  in  the  West  Indies.  Early 
in  1822  the  American  frigate  Congress,  accompa 
nied  with  eight  smaller  vessels,  was  sent  thither; 
and  in  the  course  of  the  year  more  than  twenty 
piratical  ships  were  captured.  In  the  following 
summer  Commodore  Porter  was  dispatched  with 
a  larger  fleet  to  cruise  about  Cuba  and  the  neigh 
boring  islands.  Such  was  his  vigilance  that  the 
retreats  of  the  sea-robbers  were  completely  broken 
up;  not  a  pirate  was  left  afloat. 

At  this  time  the  countries  of  South  America 
were  disturbed  with  many  revolutions.  From  the 
days  of  Pizarro  these  states  had  been  dependencies 
of  European  monarchies.  Now  they  declared 
their  independence,  and  struggled  to  maintain  it 
by  force  of  arms.  The  people  of  the  United  States, 
having  achieved  their  own  liberty,  naturally  sym 
pathized  with  the  patriots  of  the  South.  Mr.  Clay 


564  History  of  the  United  States 

urged  upon  the  government  the  duty  of  giving  offi 
cial  recognition  to  the  South  American  republics. 
At  last  his  views  prevailed;  and  in  March  of  1822 
a  bill  was  passed  by  Congress  recognizing  the  new 
states  as  sovereign  nations.  In  the  following  year 
this  action  was  followed  up  by  the  President  with 
a  vigorous  message,  in  which  he  declared  that  for 
the  future  the  American  continents  were  not  to  be 
considered  as  subjects  for  colonization  by  any 
European  power.  This  famous  declaration  con 
stitutes  what  has  ever  since  been  known  in  the 
politics  and  diplomacy  of  the  United  States  as  the 
Monroe  Doctrine — a  doctrine  by  which  the  entire 
Western  hemisphere,  except  the  portions  already 
occupied  by  European  powers,  is  consecrated  to 
free  institutions. 

Great  was  the  joy  of  the  American  people  in 
the  summer  of  1824.  The  venerated  La  Fayette, 
now  aged  and  gray,  returned  once  more  to  visit  the 
land  for  whose  freedom  he  had  shed  his  blood. 
The  honored  patriots  who  had  fought  by  his  side 
came  forth  to  greet  him.  The  younger  heroes 
crowded  around  him.  In  every  city,  and  on  every 
battlefield  which  he  visited,  he  was  surrounded  by 
a  throng  of  shouting  freemen.  His  journey 
through  the  country  was  a  triumph.  It  was  a 
solemn  and  sacred  moment  when  he  stood  alone 
by  the  grave  of  Washington.  Over  the  dust  of 
the  great  dead  the  patriot  of  France  paid  the 
homage  of  his  tears.  In  September  of  1825  he 
bade  a  final  adieu  to  the  people  who  had  made  him 
their  guest,  and  then  sailed  for  his  native  land. 


Adams's  Administration  565 

At  his  departure,  the  frigate  Brandywine — a  name 
significant  for  him — was  prepared  to  bear  him 
away.  While  liberty  remains  to  cheer  the  West, 
the  name  of  La  Fayette  shall  be  hallowed. 

Before  the  departure  of  the  illustrious 
Frenchman  another  presidential  election  had  been 
held.  It  was  a  time  of  great  excitement  and  much 
division  of  sentiment.  Four  candidates  were  pre 
sented  for  the  suffrages  of  the  people.  There  was 
an  appearance  of  sectionalism  in  the  canvass.  John 
Quincy  Adams  was  put  forward  as  the  candidate 
of  the  East ;  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  as 
the  choice  of  the  South;  Henry  Clay  and  Andrew 
Jackson  as  the  favorites  of  the  West.  No  candi 
date  received  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes,  and 
for  the  second  time  in  the  history  of  the  govern 
ment  the  choice  of  President  was  referred  to  the 
House  of  Representatives.  By  that  body  Mr. 
Adams  was  duly  elected.  For  Vice-President,  John 
C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,  had  been  chosen  by 
the  electoral  college. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ADAMS'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1825-1829 

THE  new  President  was  inaugurated  on  the  4th  of 
March,  1825.  He  was  a  man  of  high  attainments 
in  literature  and  statesmanship.  At  the  age  of 
eleven  years  he  accompanied  his  father,  John 


566  History  of  the  United  States 

Adams,  to  Europe.  At  Paris  and  Amsterdam  and 
St.  Petersburg  the  son  continued  his  studies,  and 
at  the  same  time  became  acquainted  with  the  man 
ners  and  politics  of  the  Old  World.  The  vast 
opportunities  of  his  youth  were  improved  to  the 
fullest  extent.  In  his  riper 
years  he  served  his  country  as 
ambassador  to  the  Nether 
lands,  Portugal,  Prussia,  Rus 
sia  and  England.  He  had 
also  held  the  offices  of  United 
States  senator  from  Massa 
chusetts,  and  secretary  of  state 
under  Monroe.  He  brought 
to  the  presidential  chair  wis 
dom,  experience,  and  ability. 

The  new  administration  was 
an  epoch  of  peace  and  pros 
perity  in  the  country;  but  the  spirit  of  party 
manifested  itself  with  much  violence.  The  ad 
herents  of  General  Jackson  and  Mr.  Crawford 
united  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  President; 
and  there  was  a  want  of  unanimity  between  the 
different  departments  of  the  government.  In  the 
Senate  the  political  friends  of  Mr.  Adams  were 
in  a  minority,  and  their  majority  in  the  lower 
House  only  lasted  for  one  session.  In  his  in 
augural  address  the  President  strongly  advocated 
the  doctrine  of  internal  improvements;  but  the 
adverse  views  of  Congress  prevented  his  recom 
mendations  from  being  adopted.  In  1826  the  at 
tention  of  the  country  was  attracted  by  the  Panama 


John    Quincy    Adams 
President    1825-29 


Adams's  Administration  567 

Congress,  a  convention  of  American  republics  to  be 
held  at  Panama.  President  Adams,  led  by  Henry 
Clay,  his  secretary  of  state,  determined  to  send 
delegates  to  the  congress;  but  the  Senate  was  so 
long  giving  its  consent  that  the  convention  had  ad 
journed  before  the  American  delegates  arrived  on 
the  ground.  The  object  of  this  congress  was  to 
promote  the  trade  of  the  American  republics  with 
one  another,  to  establish  firmly  the  Monroe  Doc 
trine,  and  the  like;  but  its  deliberations  produced 
little  effect. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  a  difficulty  had  ex 
isted  between  the  government  of  the  United  States 
and  Georgia  in  respect  to  the  lands  held  in  that 
State  by  the  Creek  Indians.  When,  in  1802,  Geor 
gia  relinquished  her  claim  to  Mississippi  Territory, 
the  general  government  agreed  to  purchase  and 
surrender  to  the  State  all  the  Creek  lands  lying 
within  her  own  borders.  This  pledge  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  had  never  been  fulfilled,  and 
Georgia  complained  of  bad  faith.  The  difficulty 
became  alarming;  but  finally,  in  March  of  1826, 
a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  Creek  chiefs 
and  the  President,  by  which  a  cession  of  all  their 
lands  in  Georgia  was  obtained.  At  the  same  time 
the  Creeks  agreed  to  remove  to  a  new  home  beyond 
the  Mississippi. 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1826 — just  fifty  years  to  a 
day  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence — the 
venerable  John  Adams,  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  his  successor,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
both  died.  Both  had  lifted  their  voices  for  free- 


568  History  of  the  United  States 

dom  in  the  early  and  perilous  days  of  the  Revo 
lution.  One  had  written  and  both  had  signed  the 
great  declaration.  Both  had  lived  to  see  their 
country's  independence.  Both  had  served  that 
country  in  its  highest  official  station.  Both  had 
reached  extreme  old  age:  Adams  was  ninety,  Jef 
ferson,  eighty-two.  Now,  while  the  cannon  were 
booming  for  the  fiftieth  birthday  of  the  nation,  the 
gray  and  honored  patriots  passed,  almost  at  the 
same  hour,  from  among  the  living. 

In  the  following  September,  William  Morgan, 
a  resident  of  Western  New  York,  having  threat 
ened  to  publish  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic  fra 
ternity,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  suddenly  dis 
appeared  from  his  home,  and  was  never  heard  of 
afterward.  The  Masons  fell  under  the  suspicion 
of  having  abducted  and  murdered  him.  A  great 
clamor  was  raised  against  them  in  New  York,  and 
the  excitement  extended  to  other  parts  of  the  coun 
try.  The  issue  between  the  Masons  and  their  ene 
mies  became  a  political  one,  and  many  eminent  men 
were  embroiled  in  the  controversy.  For  several 
years  the  anti-Masonic  party  exercised  a  consider 
able  influence  in  the  elections  of  the  country.  De 
Witt  Clinton,  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  valu 
able  statesmen  of  New  York,  had  to  suffer  much, 
in  loss  of  reputation,  from  his  membership  in  the 
order.  His  last  days  were  clouded  with  the  odium 
which  for  the  time  being  attached  to  the  Masonic 
name. 

In  the  congressional  debates  of  1828  the  ques 
tion  of  the  tariff  was  much  discussed.  By  a  tariff 


Adams's  Administration 


569 


is  understood  a  duty  levied  on  imported  goods. 
The  object  of  the  same  is  twofold:  first,  to  produce 
a  revenue  for  the  government;  and  secondly,  to 
raise  the  price  of  the  article  on  which  the  duty  is 
laid,  in  order  that  the  domestic  manufacturer  of  the 
thing  taxed  may  be  able  to  compete  with  the  for 
eign  producer.  When  the  duty  is  levied  for  the 


"  The  Rocket,"  the  First  Railway  Locomotive 
(From  an  Old  Engraving) 

latter  purpose,  it  is  called  a  protective  tariff. 
Whether  it  is  sound  policy  for  a  nation  to  have 
protective  duties  is  a  question  which  has  been  much 
debated  in  all  civilized  countries.  Mr.  Adams  and 
his  friends  decided  in  favor  of  a  tariff;  and  in  1828 
the  duties  on  fabrics  made  of  wool,  cotton,  linen 
and  silk,  and  those  on  articles  manufactured  of 
iron,  lead,  etc.,  were  much  increased.  The  object 
of  such  legislation  was  to  stimulate  the  manufac- 


570  History  of  the  United  States 

turing  interests  of  the  country.  The  question  of 
the  tariff  has  usually  been  a  sectional  issue.  The 
people  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  where 
factories  abound,  have  favored  protective  duties; 
while  in  the  agricultural  regions  of  the  South  and 
West  such  duties  have  been  opposed.  The  tariff 
passed  by  Congress  in  1828  was  so  high  that  it 
was  called  the  "  Tariff  of  Abominations." 

With  the  fall  of  1828  came  another  presidential 
election.  The  contest  was  specially  exciting.  Mr. 
Adams,  supported  by  Mr.  Clay,  the  secretary  of 
state,  was  put  forward  for  re-election.  In  accord 
ance  with  an  understanding  which  had  existed  for 
several  years,  General  Jackson  appeared  as  the 
candidate  of  the  opposition.  In  the  previous  elec 
tion  Jackson  had  received  more  electoral  votes  than 
Adams;  but  disregarding  the  popular  preference, 
the  House  of  Representatives  had  chosen  the  lat 
ter.  Now  the  people  were  determined  to  have  their 
way;  and  Jackson  was  triumphantly  elected,  re 
ceiving  a  hundred  and  seventy-eight  electoral  votes 
against  eighty-three  for  his  opponent.  As  soon  as 
the  election  was  over,  the  excitement — as  is  usual 
in  such  cases — abated;  and  the  thoughts  of  the 
people  were  turned  to  other  subjects. 


Jackson's  Administration 


571 


If 


CHAPTER  IX 

JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1829-1837 

THE  new  President  was  a  military  hero.  But  he 
was  more  than  that:  a  man  of  great  native  powers 
and  inflexible  honesty.  His  tal 
ents  were  strong  but  unpolished; 
his  integrity  unassailable;  his 
will  like  iron.  He  was  one  of 
those  men  for  whom  no  toils  are 
too  arduous,  no  responsibility  too 
great.  His  personal  character 
was  strongly  impressed  upon  his 
administration.  Believing  that 
the  public  affairs  would  be  best 
conducted  by  such  means,  and 
to  reward  his  friends  for  their 
party  service,  he  removed  nearly  seven  hundred 
officeholders,  and  appointed  in  their  stead  his  own 
political  friends.  This  practice  came  to  be  known 
as  the  Spoils  System.  It  was  adopted  by  Jackson's 
successors  and  was  continued  till  after  the  Civil 
War. 

In  his  first  annual  message  the  President  took 
strong  ground  against  rechartering  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States.  Believing  that  institution  to  be 
both  inexpedient  and  unconstitutional,  he  recom 
mended  that  the  old  charter  should  be  allowed  to 
expire  by  its  own  limitation  in  1836.  But  the  in 
fluence  of  the  bank,  with  its  many  branches,  was 


Andrew  Jackson 
President   1829-37 


572  History  of  the  United  States 

very  great;  and  in  1832  a  bill  to  recharter  was 
brought  before  Congress  and  passed.  To  this 
measure  the  President  opposed  his  veto;  and  since 
a  two-thirds  majority  in  favor  of  the  bill  could 
not  be  secured,  the  proposition  to  grant  a  new 
charter  failed. 

The  year  following  Jackson's  veto  of  the  bank 
bill  was  one  of  great  excitement  on  account  of  his 
determination  to  remove  the  government  deposits 
from  the  old  bank.  This  he  accomplished  through 
his  secretary  of  the  treasury.  The  bank  officials 
were  greatly  chagrined  at  this  bold  action  of  the 
President,  and  by  withholding  their  customary 
loans  from  other  banks  and  business  firms,  they 
brought  on  a  financial  crisis  of  wide  extent.  Thou 
sands  of  people  petitioned  the  President  to  replace 
the  deposits,  but  he  was  inflexible  and  refused  to 
be  moved,  declaring  that  any  institution  that  had 
the  power  to  disturb  the  business  of  the  country 
to  such  an  extent  had  no  place  in  a  republican  gov 
ernment.  Jackson  won  in  the  end  and  the  United 
States  Bank  ceased  to  exist  at  the  expiration  of 
the  old  charter. 

The  reopening  of  the  tariff  question  occasioned 
great  excitement  in  Congress  and  throughout  the 
country.  In  the  session  of  1831-32  additional 
duties  were  levied  upon  manufactured  goods  im 
ported  from  abroad.  By  this  act  the  manufactur 
ing  districts  were  again  favored  at  the  expense  of 
the  agricultural  States.  South  Carolina  was  spe 
cially  offended.  A  great  convention  of  her  people 
was  held,  and  it  was  resolved  that  the  tariff  law 


Jackson's  Administration  573 

of  Congress  was  unconstitutional,  and  therefore 
null  and  void.  Open  resistance  was  threatened  in 
case  the  officers  of  the  government  should  attempt 
to  collect  the  revenues  in  the  harbor  of  Charleston. 
In  the  United  States  Senate  the  right  of  a  State, 
under  certain  circumstances,  to  nullify  an  act  of 
Congress  was  boldly  proclaimed.  On  that  issue 
occurred  the  famous  debate  between  the  eloquent 


Daniel  Webster's  Oration  at  Bunker  Hill  Monument 

Colonel  Hayne,  senator  from  South  Carolina,  and 
Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  perhaps  the 
greatest  master  of  American  oratory.  The  former 
appeared  as  the  champion  of  State  rights,  and  the 
latter  as  the  advocate  of  constitutional  supremacy. 
But  the  question  was  not  decided  by  debate.  The 
President  took  the  matter  in  hand  and  issued  a 
proclamation  denying  the  right  of  any  State  to 
nullify  the  laws  of  Congress.  But  Mr.  Calhoun, 
the  Vice-President,  resigned  his  office  to  accept  a 


574  History  of  the  United  States 

seat  in  the  Senate,  where  he  might  better  defend 
the  doctrines  of  his  State.  The  President,  having 
warned  the  people  of  South  Carolina  against  pur 
suing  those  doctrines  further,  ordered  a  body  of 
troops  under  General  Scott  to  proceed  to  Charles 
ton,  and  also  sent  thither  a  man-of-war.  At  this 
display  of  force  the  leaders  of  the  nullifying  party 
quailed  and  receded  from  their  position.  Blood 
shed  was  happily  avoided;  and  in  the  following 
spring  the  excitement  was  allayed  by  a  compromise. 
Mr.  Clay  brought  forward  and  secured  the  passage 
of  a  bill  providing  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  the 
duties  complained  of  until,  at  the  end  of  ten  years, 
they  should  reach  the  standard  demanded  by  the 
South. 

In  the  spring  of  1832  the  Sac,  Fox,  and  Winne- 
bago  Indians  of  Wisconsin  Territory  began  a  war. 
They  were  incited  and  led  by  the  famous  chief 
Black  Hawk,  who,  like  many  great  sachems  before 
him,  believed  in  the  possibility  of  an  Indian  con 
federacy  sufficiently  powerful  to  beat  back  the 
whites.  The  lands  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  lying  in 
the  Rock  River  country  of  Illinois,  had  been  pur 
chased  by  the  government  twenty-five  years  pre 
viously.  The  Indians,  however,  remained  in  the 
ceded  territory,  since  there  was  no  occasion  for 
immediate  occupation  by  the  whites.  When  at  last, 
after  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  Indians  were  re 
quired  to  give  possession,  they  caviled  at  the  old 
treaty,  and  refused  to  comply.  The  government 
insisted  that  the  Red  men  should  fulfill  their  con 
tract,  and  hostilities  began  on  the  frontier.  The 


Jackson's  Administration  575 

governor  of  Illinois  called  out  the  militia,  and  Gen 
eral  Scott  was  sent  with  nine  companies  of  ar 
tillery  to  Chicago.  At  that  place  his  forces 
were  overtaken  with  cholera,  and  he  was 
prevented  from  co-operating  with  the  troops  of 
General  Atkinson.  The  latter,  however,  waged  a 
vigorous  campaign  against  the  Indians,  defeated 
them  in  several  actions,  and  made  Black  Hawk 
prisoner.  The  captive  chieftain  was  taken  to 
Washington  and  the  great  cities  of  the  East,  where 
his  understanding  was  opened  as  to  the  power  of 
the  nation  against  which  he  had  been  foolish 
enough  to  lift  his  hatchet.  Returning  to  his  own 
people,  he  advised  them  that  resistance  was  hope 
less.  The  warriors  then  abandoned  the  disputed 
lands  and  retired  into  Iowa. 

Difficulties  also  arose  with  the  Cherokees  of 
Georgia.  These  were  the  most  civilized  and  hu 
mane  of  all  the  Indian  nations.  They  had  adopted 
the  manners  of  the  whites.  They  had  pleasant 
farms,  goodly  towns,  schools,  printing  presses,  and 
a  written  code  of  laws.  The  government  of  the 
United  States  had  given  to  Georgia  a  pledge  to 
purchase  the  Cherokee  lands  for  the  benefit  of  the 
State.  The  pledge  was  not  fulfilled;  the  authorities 
of  Georgia  grew  tired  of  waiting  for  the  removal 
of  the  Indians;  and  the  legislature  passed  a  statute 
by  which  the  government  of  the  Red  men  was 
abrogated  and  the  laws  of  the  State  extended  over 
the  Indian  domain.  With  singular  illiberality,  it 
was  at  the  same  time  enacted  that  the  Cherokees 
and  Creeks  should  not  have  the  use  of  the  State 


576  History  of  the  United  States 

courts  or  the  protection  of  the  laws.  This  code, 
however,  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  su 
preme  court  of  the  United  States.  The  Indians 
then  appealed  to  the  President  for  help;  but  he  re 
fused  to  interpose  between  them  and  the  laws  of 
Georgia.  He  also  recommended  the  removal  of 
the  Cherokees  to  lands  beyond  the  Mississippi ;  and 
with  this  end  in  view,  the  Indian  Territory  was 
organized  in  the  year  1834.  The  Indians  yielded 
writh  great  reluctance.  More  than  five  million  dol 
lars  were  paid  them  for  their  lands;  but  still  they 
clung  to  their  homes.  At  last  General  Scott  was 
ordered  to  remove  them  to  their  new  territory, 
using  force  if  necessary  to  accomplish  the  work. 
The  years  1837-38  were  occupied  with  the  final 
transfer  of  the  Cherokees  to  their  homes  in  the 
West. 

More  serious  still  was  the  conflict  with  the  Sem- 
inoles  of  Florida.  The  trouble  arose  from  an  at 
tempt  on  the  part  of  the  government  to  remove 
the  tribe  to  a  new  domain  beyond  the  Mississippi. 
Hostilities  began  in  1835,  and  continued  for  four 
years.  The  chief  of  the  Seminoles  was  Osceola, 
a  half-breed  of  great  talents  and  audacity.  He  and 
Micanopy,  another  chieftain,  denied  the  validity 
of  a  former  treaty  by  which  the  Seminole  lands 
had  been  ceded  to  the  government.  So  haughty 
was  the  bearing  of  Osceola  that  General  Thomp 
son,  the  agent  of  the  government  in  Florida,  ar 
rested  him  and  put  him  in  irons.  The  red  warrior 
dissembled  his  purpose,  gave  his  assent  to  the  old 
treaty,  and  was  liberated.  As  might  have  been 


Jackson's  Administration  577 

foreseen,  he  immediately  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
to  slaughter  the  whites  and  devastate  the  country. 
At  this  time  the  interior  of  Florida  was  held  by 
General  Clinch,  who  had  his  headquarters  at  Fort 
Drane.  seven ty-five  miles  southwest  from  St.  Au 
gustine.  The  post  was  considered  in  danger;  and 
Major  Dade  with  a  hundred  and  seventeen  men 


Fort  King 

was  dispatched  from  Fort  Brooke,  at  the  head  of 
Tampa  Bay,  to  re-enforce  General  Clinch.  After 
marching  about  half  the  distance,  Dade's  forces 
fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and  were  all  massacred 
except  one  man  who  was  left  alive  under  a  heap  of 
the  dead.  On  the  same  day  Osceola  with  a  band 
of  warriors,  prowling  around  Fort  King,  on  the 
Ocklawaha,  surrounded  a  storehouse  where  Gen- 


578  History  of  the  United  States 

eral  Thompson  was  dining  with  a  company  of 
friends.  The  savages  poured  in  a  murderous  fire, 
and  then  rushed  forward  and  scalped  the  dead 
before  the  garrison  of  the  fort,  only  two  hundred 
and  fifty  yards  away,  could  bring  assistance.  Gen 
eral  Thompson's  body  was  pierced  by  fifteen  balls; 
and  four  of  his  nine  companions  were  killed. 

On  the  3  ist  of  December  General  Clinch  fought 
a  battle  with  the  Indians  on  the  banks  of  the  With- 
lacoochie.  The  savages  were  repulsed,  but  Clinch 
thought  it  prudent  to  retreat  to  Fort  Drane.  In 
the  following  February  General  Scott  took  com 
mand  of  the  American  forces  in  Florida.  On  the 
29th  of  the  same  month  General  Gaines,  who  was 
advancing  from  the  West  with  a  force  of  a  thou 
sand  men  for  the  relief  of  Fort  Drane,  was  at 
tacked  near  the  battlefield  where  Clinch  had 
fought.  The  Seminoles  made  a  furious  onset,  but 
were  repulsed  with  severe  losses.  In  May  some 
straggling  Creeks  who  still  remained  in  the  country 
began  hostilities;  but  they  were  soon  subdued  and 
compelled  to  seek  their  reservation  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  In  October  of  1836  Governor  Call 
of  Florida  marched  with  a  force  of  two  thousand 
men  against  the  Indians  of  the  interior.  A  divi 
sion  of  his  army  overtook  the  enemy  in  the  Wahoo 
Swamp,  a  short  distance  from  the  scene  of  Dade's 
massacre.  A  battle  ensued,  and  the  Indians  were 
driven  into  the  Everglades  with  considerable  losses. 
Soon  afterward  another  engagement  was  fought 
on  nearly  the  same  ground;  and  again  the  savages 
were  beaten,  though  not  decisively.  The  remain- 


Jackson's  Administration  579 

der  of  the  history  of  the  Seminole  War  belongs  to 
the  following  administration. 

In  1834  the  strong  will  of  the  chief  magistrate 
was  brought  into  conflict  with  France.  The  Ameri 
can  government  held  an  old  claim  against  that 
country  for  damages  done  to  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  in  the  wars  of  Napoleon.  In  1831 
the  French  king  had  agreed  to  pay  five  million 
dollars  for  the  alleged  injuries;  but  the  dilatory 
government  of  France  postponed  and  neglected  the 
payment  until  the  President,  becoming  wrathful, 
recommended  to  Congress  to  make  reprisals  on 
French  commerce,  and  at  the  same  time  directed 
the  American  minister  at  Paris  to  demand  his  pass 
ports  and  come  home.  These  measures  had  the 
desired  effect,  and  the  indemnity  was  promptly 
paid.  The  government  of  Portugal  was  brought 
to  terms  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  country,  though  flourishing,  was  not  with 
out  calamities.  Several  eminent  statesmen  fell  by 
the  hand  of  death.  On  the  4th  of  July,  1831,  ex- 
President  Monroe  passed  away.  Like  Jefferson 
and  Adams,  he  sank  to  rest  amid  the  rejoicings  of 
the  national  anniversary.  In  the  following  year 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  the  last  surviving 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  died  at 
the  age  of  ninety-six.  A  short  time  afterward 
Philip  Freneau,  the  poet  of  the  Revolution,  de 
parted  from  the  land  of  the  living.  The  patriot 
bard  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty.  On  the  24th 
of  June,  1833,  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke  died 
in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  man  admired  for  his 


580  History  of  the  United  States 

talents,  dreaded  for  his  wit  and  sarcasm,  and  re 
spected  for  his  integrity  as  a  statesman.  In  1835 
Chief  Justice  Marshall  breathed  his  last,  at  the  age 

of  fourscore  years; 
and  in  the  next  year 
ex- President  Madi 
son,  worn  with  the 
toils  of  eighty-five 
years,  passed  away. 
To  these  losses  of 
life  must  be  added 
two  great  disasters 
to  property.  On  the 
1 6th  of  December, 
1835,  fire  broke  out 
in  the  lower  part  of 
New  York  city  and 
laid  thirty  acres  of 
buildings  in  ashes.  Five  hundred  and  twenty- 
nine  houses  and  property  valued  at  eighteen  mil 
lion  dollars  were  consumed.  Just  one  year  after 
ward  the  Patent  Office  and  Post  Office  at  Washing 
ton  were  destroyed  in  the  same  manner. 

Jackson's  administration  was  signalized  by  the 
addition  of  two  new  States.  In  June  of  1836  Ar 
kansas  was  admitted,  with  an  area  of  fifty-two 
thousand  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  seventy 
thousand.  In  January  of  the  following  year  Mich 
igan  Territory  was  organized  as  a  State  and  added 
to  the  Union.  The  new  commonwealth  brought 
a  population  of  a  hundred  and  fifty-seven  thousand, 
and  an  area  of  fifty-six  thousand  square  miles.  In 


Samuel    Francis    Smith 

Author  of  "  My  Country, 

'Tis  of   Thee" 


Fan  Buren's  Administration  581 

the  autumn  of  the  previous  year  Martin  Van  Buren 
had  been  elected  President.  The  opposing  candi 
date  was  General  Harrison  of  Ohio,  who  received 
the  support  of  the  new  Whig  party.  As  to  the 
vice-presidency,  no  one  secured  a  majority  in  the 
electoral  college,  and  the  choice  devolved  on  the 
Senate.  By  that  body  Colonel  Richard  M.  John 
son,  of  Kentucky,  was  duly  elected. 


CHAPTER  X, 

VAN  BUREN'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1837-1841' 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  eighth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  Kinderhook,  New 
York,  on  the  5th  of  December,  1782.  After  re 
ceiving  a  limited  education  he  became  a  student  of 
law.  In  his  thirtieth  year  he  was  elected  to  the 
Senate  of  his  native  State;  and  in  1821  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator.  Seven  years  afterward  he 
was  elected  governor  of  New  York,  but  soon  re 
signed  to  become  Jackson's  secretary  of  state.  In 
1831  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  England.  The 
following  year  he  returned  and  was  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States.  Now  he  was 
called  to  the  highest  office  in  the  gift  of  the  people. 
One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  new  administra 
tion  was  to  finish  the  Seminole  War.  In  the  begin 
ning  of  1837  the  command  of  the  army  in  Florida 
was  transferred  from  General  Scott  to  General 


582  History  of  the  United  States 

Jessup.  In  the  following  fall  Osceola  came  to  the 
American  camp  with  a  flag  of  truce;  but  he  was 
suspected  of  treachery,  seized,  and  sent  a  prisoner 
to  Fort  Moultrie,  where  he  died  in  1838.  The 
Seminoles,  though  disheart 
ened  by  the  loss  of  their 
chief,  continued  the  war. 
In  December  Colonel  Zach- 
ary  Taylor,  with  a  force 
of  over  a  thousand  men, 
marched  into  the  Ever 
glades  of  Florida,  deter 
mined  to  fight  the  savages 
in  their  lairs.  After  un 
paralleled  sufferings  he  over 
took  them  on  Christmas 
day,  near  Lake  Okeechobee. 
A  hard  battle  was  fought, 
and  the  Indians  were  defeated,  but  not  until  a  hun 
dred  and  thirty-nine  of  the  whites  had  fallen.  For 
more  than  a  year  Taylor  continued  to  hunt  the 
Red  men  through  the  swamps.  In  1839  the  chiefs 
sent  in  their  submission  and  signed  a  treaty;  but 
their  removal  to  the  West  was  made  with  much 
reluctance  and  delay. 

In  the  first  year  of  Van  Buren's  administration  the 
country  was  afflicted  with  a  monetary  panic  of  the 
most  serious  character.  The  preceding  years  had 
been  a  time  of  great  prosperity.  The  national  debt 
was  entirely  liquidated  and  a  surplus  of  nearly  forty 
million  dollars  had  accumulated  in  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States.  By  act  of  Congress  this  vast 


Martin   Van   Buren 
President   1837-41 


Fan  Bttren's  Administration  583 

sum  had  been  distributed  among  the  several  States. 
Owing  to  the  abundance  of  money,  speculations  of 
all  sorts  grew  rife.  The  credit  system  pervaded 
every  department  of  business.  The  banks  of  the 
country  were  suddenly  multiplied  to  nearly  seven 
hundred.  Vast  issues  of  irredeemable  paper  money 
stimulated  the  speculative  spirit  and  increased  the 
opportunities  for  fraud. 

The  bills  of  these  unsound  banks  were  receivable 
at  the  land  offices;  and  settlers  and  speculators 
made  a  rush  to  secure  the  public  lands  while  money 
was  plentiful.  Seeing  that  in  receiving  such  an  un 
sound  currency  in  exchange  for  the  national  do 
main  the  government  was  likely  to  be  defrauded 
out  of  millions,  President  Jackson  had  issued  an 
order  called  the  Specie  Circular,  by  which  the 
land  agents  were  directed  henceforth  to  receive 
nothing  but  coin  in  payment  for  the  lands.  The 
effects  of  this  circular  came  upon  the  nation  in  the 
first  year  of  Van  Buren's  administration.  The  in 
terests  of  the  government  had  been  secured  by 
Jackson's  vigilance;  but  the  business  of  the  country 
was  prostrated  by  the  shock.  The  banks  suspended 
specie  payment.  Mercantile  houses  failed;  and 
disaster  swept  through  every  avenue  of  trade.  Dur 
ing  the  months  of  March  and  April,  1837,  the 
failures  in  New  York  and  New  Orleans  amounted 
to  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars.  A 
committee  of  business  men  from  the  former  city 
besought  the  President  to  rescind  the  specie  circu 
lar  and  to  call  a  special  session  of  Congress.  The 
former  request  was  refused  and  the  latter  complied 


584  History  of  the  United  States 

with;  but  not  until  the  executive  was  driven  by 
the  distresses  of  the  country. 

When  Congress  convened  in  the  following  Sep 
tember,  several  measures  of  relief  were  brought 
forward.  A  bill  authorizing  the  issue  of  treasury 
notes,  not  to  exceed  ten  millions  of  dollars,  was 
passed  as  a  temporary  expedient.  More  important 
by  far  was  the  measure  proposed  by  the  President 
and  brought  before  Congress  under  the  name  of 
the  Independent  Treasury  Bill.  By  the  provisions 
of  this  remarkable  project  the  public  funds  of  the 
nation  were  to  be  kept  on  deposit  in  a  treasury  to 
be  established  for  that  special  purpose.  It  was 
argued  by  Mr.  Van  Buren  and  his  friends  that  the 
surplus  money  of  the  country  would  drift  into  the 
independent  treasury  and  lodge  there ;  and  that  by 
this  means  the  speculative  mania  would  be  effect 
ually  checked;  for  extensive  speculations  could  not 
be  carried  on  without  an  abundant  currency.  It 
was  in  the  nature  of  the  President's  plan  to  sep 
arate  the  business  of  the  United  States  from  the 
general  business  of  the  country. 

The  independent  treasury  bill  was  passed  by  the 
Senate,  but  defeated  in  the  House  of  Representa 
tives.  But  in  the  following  regular  session  of  Con 
gress  the  bill  was  again  brought  forward  and 
adopted.  In  the  mean  time,  the  business  of  the 
country  had  in  a  measure  revived.  During  the 
year  1838  most  of  the  banks  resumed  specie  pay 
ments.  Commercial  affairs  assumed  their  wonted 
aspect;  but  trade  was  less  vigorous  than  be 
fore.  Enterprises  of  all  kinds  languished,  and  the 


Van  Buren's  Administration  585 

people  were  greatly  disheartened.  Discontent  pre 
vailed;  and  the  administration  was  blamed  with 
everything. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1837  there  was  an  insur 
rection  in  Canada.  A  portion  of  the  people,  dis 
satisfied  with  the  British  government,  broke  out 
in  revolt  and  attempted  to  establish  their  independ 
ence.  The  insurgents  found  much  sympathy  and 
encouragement  in  the  United  States,  especially  in 
New  York.  The  insurgents  took  refuge  on  Navy 
Island,  in  the  Niagara  River,  above  the  great  falls, 
and  were  supplied  with  food  and  arms  by  the 
Caroline,  an  American  vessel.  The  loyalists  of 
Canada  one  night  approached  the  island  with  the 
intention  of  destroying  the  Caroline.  But  at  that 
moment  the  boat  was  on  the  American  side  of  the 
river.  Determined  not  to  be  thwarted  in  their  pur 
pose,  the  Canadians  crossed  over,  boarded  the  ves 
sel,  set  her  on  fire,  and  sent  her  burning  over  the 
falls.  These  events  created  considerable  excite 
ment,  and  the  peaceful  relations  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  endangered.  But 
the  President  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality, 
forbidding  interference  with  the  affairs  of  Canada ; 
and  General  Wool  was  sent  to  the  Niagara  fron 
tier  with  a  sufficient  force  to  quell  the  disturbance 
and  punish  the  disturbers.  The  New  York  insur 
gents  on  Navy  Island  were  obliged  to  surrender, 
and  order  was  soon  restored. 

Otherwise,  the  administration  of  Van  Buren 
was  uneventful.  He  became  a  candidate  for  re 
election,  and  received  the  support  of  the  Demo- 


586  History  of  the  United  States 

cratic  party.  The  Whigs  again  put  forward  Gen 
eral  Harrison.  The  canvass  was  one  of  the  most 
exciting  in  the  history  of  the  country.  The  leaders 
of  the  opposition  poured  out  all  their  wrath  upon 
the  luckless  and  unprosperous  administration  of 
Van  Buren;  and  Harrison  was  triumphantly 
elected.  After  controlling  the  government  for 
forty  years,  the  Democratic  party  was  temporarily 
routed.  For  Vice-President,  John  Tyler  of  Vir 
ginia  was  chosen. 


CHAPTER   XI 

ADMINISTRATIONS      OF      HARRISON     AND     TYLER, 
1841-1845 

THE  new  President  was  a  Virginian  by  birth,  and 
the  adopted  son  of  Robert  Morris,  the  financier  of 
the  Revolution.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Hamp- 
den-Sidney  College,  and  afterward  a  student  of 
medicine.  Attracted  by  the  military  life,  he  en 
tered  the  army  of  St.  Clair;  was  rapidly  promoted; 
became  lieutenant  governor  and  then  governor  of 
Indian  Territory,  which  office  he  filled  with  great 
ability.  His  military  career  in  the  Northwest  has 
already  been  narrated.  He  was  inaugurated  Presi 
dent  on  the  4th  of  March,  1841,  and  began  his 
duties  by  issuing  a  call  for  a  special  session  of 
Congress  to  consider  "  sundry  important  matters 
connected  with  the  finances  of  the  country."  An 
able  cabinet  was  organized^  at  the  head  of  which 


Administrations  of  Harrison  and   Tyler     587 

was  Daniel  Webster  as  secretary  of  state.  Every 
thing  promised  well  for  the  new  Whig  adminis 
tration;  but  before  Congress  could  convene,  the 
venerable  President, 
bending  under  the  weight 
of  sixty-eight  years,  fell 
sick,  and  died  just  one 
month  after  his  inaugura 
tion.  It  was  the  first  time 
that  such  a  calamity  had 
befallen  the  American 
people.  Profound  and 
universal  grief  was  mani 
fested  at  the  sad  event. 
On  the  6th  of  April 
Mr.  Tyler  took  the  oath 
of  office,  and  became 
President  of  the  United 
States. 

He  was  a  statesman  of  considerable  distinction; 
a  native  of  Virginia ;  a  graduate  of  William  and 
Mary  College.  At  an  early  age  he  left  the  profes 
sion  of  law  to  enter  public  life;  was  chosen  a: 
member  of  Congress;  and  in  1825  was  elected  gov 
ernor  of  Virginia.  From  that  position  he  was  sent 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States ;  and  now  at  the 
age  of  fifty-one  was  called  to  the  presidency.  He 
had  been  put  upon  the  ticket  with  General  Harri 
son  through  motives  of  expediency;  for  although 
a  Whig  in  political  principles,  he  had  been  a  Demo 
crat,  and  was  not  in  full  sympathy  with  the  party 
that  elected  him. 


William  Henry  Harrison 
President  1841 


588  History  of  the  United  States 

The  special  session  of  Congress  continued  from 
May  till  September.  One  of  the  first  measures  pro 
posed  and  carried  was  the  repeal  of  the  independ 
ent  treasury  bill.  A  general 
bankrupt  law  was  then  brought 
forward  and  passed,  by  which 
a  great  number  of  insolvent 
business  men  were  relieved 
from  the  disabilities  of  debt. 
The  next  measure — a  favorite 
scheme  of  the  Whigs — was 
the  rechartering  of  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States.  The 
old  charter  had  expired  in 
1836;  but  the  bank  had  con 
tinued  in  operation  under  the 
authority  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Now  a  bill 
to  recharter  was  brought  forward  and  passed.  The 
President  interposed  his  veto.  Again  the  bill  was 
presented,  in  a  modified  form,  and  received  the  assent 
of  both  Houses,  only  to  be  rejected  by  the  executive. 
By  this  action  a  final  rupture  was  produced  between 
the  President  and  the  party  which  had  elected  him. 
The  indignant  Whigs,  baffled  by  want  of  a  two- 
thirds  majority  in  Congress,  turned  upon  him  with 
storms  of  invective.  All  the  members  of  the  cab 
inet  except  Mr.  Webster  resigned ;  and  he  retained 
his  place  only  because  of  a  pending  boundary  treaty 
with  Great  Britain. 

From  the  time  of  the  treaty  of  1783  the  limit 
of  the  country  on  the  northeast  had  been  a  matter 
of  controversy.  Sometimes  the  difficulty  grew  seri- 


John  Tyler 
President   1841-45 


Administrations  of  Harrison  and   Tyler     589 

ous  and  portended  war.  Lord  Ashburton  on  the 
part  of  Great  Britain,  and  Mr.  Webster  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States,  were  called  upon  to  settle 
the  dispute.  They  performed  their  work  in  a  man 
ner  honorable  to  both  nations ;  the  present  boundary 
was  fixed;  and  on  the  2Oth  of  August,  1842,  the 
treaty  was  approved  by  the  Senate. 

In  the  next  year  the  country  was  vexed  with 
a  domestic  trouble.  For  nearly  two  centuries  the 
government  of  Rhode  Island  had  been  adminis 
tered  under  a  charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  By 
the  terms  of  that  ancient  instrument  the  right  of 
suffrage  was  restricted  to  those  who  held  a  certain 
amount  of  property.  There  were  other  clauses  re 
pugnant  to  the  spirit  of  republicanism ;  and  a  propo 
sition  was  made  to  change  the  constitution  of  the 
State.  On  that  issue  the  people  of  Rhode  Island 
were  nearly  unanimous ;  but  in  respect  to  the  man 
ner  of  abrogating  the  old  charter  there  was  a  seri 
ous  division.  One  faction,  called  the  "  law  and 
order  party,"  proceeding  in  accordance  with  the 
former  constitution,  chose  Samuel  W.  King  as  gov 
ernor.  The  other  faction,  called  the  "  suffrage 
party,"  acting  in  an  irregular  way,  elected  Thomas 
W.  Dorr.  In  May  of  1842  both  parties  met  and 
organized  their  rival  governments. 

The  "  law  and  order  party  "  now  undertook  to 
suppress  the  faction  of  Dorr.  The  latter  resisted 
and  made  an  attempt  to  capture  the  State  arsenal. 
But  the  militia,  under  direction  of  King's  officers, 
drove  the  assailants  away.  A  month  later  the  ad 
herents  of  Dorr  again  appeared  in  arms,  but  were 


59°  History  of  the  United  States 

dispersed  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States.  Dorr 
fled  from  Rhode  Island;  returned  soon  afterward, 
was  caught,  tried  for  treason,  convicted,  and  sen 
tenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was  then  of 
fered  pardon  on  condition  of  taking  an  oath  of 
allegiance.  This  he  stubbornly  refused  to  do;  and 
in  June  of  1845  obtained  his  liberty  without  con 
ditions. 

About  the  same  time  a  disturbance  occurred  in 
New  York.  Until  the  year  1840  the  descendants 
of  Van  Rensselaer,  one  of  the  old  Dutch  patroons 
of  New  Netherland,  had  held  a  claim  on  certain 
lands  in  the  counties  of  Rensselaer,  Columbia,  and 
Delaware.  In  liquidation  of  this  claim  they  had 
continued  to  receive  from  the  farmers  certain  tri 
fling  rents.  At  last  the  farmers  grew  tired  of  the 
payment,  and  rebelled.  From  1840  until  1844  the 
question  was  frequently  discussed  in  the  New  York 
legislature;  but  no  satisfactory  settlement  was 
reached.  In  the  latter  year  the  anti-rent  party  be 
came  so  bold  as  to  coat  with  tar  and  feathers  those 
of  their  fellow-tenants  who  made  the  payments. 
Officers  were  sent  to  apprehend  the  rioters;  and 
them  they  killed.  Time  and  again  the  authorities 
of  the  State  were  invoked  to  quell  the  disturbers. 
The  question  in  dispute  was  finally  settled  in  favor 
of  the  farmers. 

Of  a  different  sort  was  the  difficulty  with  the 
Mormons,  who  now  began  to  play  a  part  in  the 
history  of  the  country.  Under  the  leadership  of 
their  prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  they  made  their  first 
important  settlement  in  Jackson  county,  Missouri. 


Administrations  of  Harrison  and  Tyler     591 

Here  their  numbers  increased  to  fully  fifteen  hun 
dred;  and  they  began  to  say  that  the  great  West 
was  to  be  their  inheritance.  Not  liking  their  neigh 
bors  or  their  practices,  the  people  of  Missouri  de 
termined  to  be  rid  of  them.  As  soon  as  opportunity 
offered  the  militia  was  called  out,  and  the  Mormons 
were  obliged  to  leave  the  State.  In  the  spring  of 
1839  they  crossed  the  Mississippi  into  Illinois,  and 
on  a  high  bluff  overlooking  the  river  laid  out  a  city 
which  they  called  Nauvoo,  meaning  the  Beautiful. 
Here  they  built  a  splendid  temple.  Other  Mor 
mons  from  different  parts  of  the  Union  and  from 
Europe  came  to  join  the  community,  until  the  num 
ber  was  swelled  to  ten  thousand.  Again  popular 
suspicion  was  aroused  against  them.  Under  the 
administration  of  Smith,  laws  were  enacted  con 
trary  to  the  statutes  of  Illinois.  The  people 
charged  the  Mormons  with  the  commission  of 
certain  thefts  and  murders;  and  it  was  believed 
that  the  courts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nauvoo 
would  be  powerless  to  convict  the  criminals. 

In  the  midst  of  much  excitement  Smith  and  his 
brother  were  arrested,  taken  to  Carthage,  and 
lodged  in  jail.  On  the  27th  of  June,  1844,  a  mob 
gathered,  broke  open  the  jail  doors,  and  killed  the 
prisoners.  During  the  rest  of  the  summer  there 
were  many  scenes  of  violence.  In  1845  tne  char 
ter  of  Nauvoo  was  annulled  by  the  legislature  of 
Illinois.  Most  of  the  Mormons  gave  up  in  despair 
and  resolved  to  exile  themselves  beyond  the  limits 
of  civilization.  In  1846  they  began  their  march 
to  the  far  West.  In  September  Nauvoo  was  can- 


592  History  of  the  United  States 

nonaded  for  three  days,  and  the  remnant  of  its 
inhabitants  driven  to  join  their  companions  at 
Council  Bluffs.  Thence  they  dragged  themselves 
wearily  westward;  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains; 
reached  the  basin  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake;  and 
founded  Utah  Territory. 

Meanwhile,  a  great  agitation  had  arisen  in  the 
country  in  regard  to  the  republic  of  Texas.  From 
1821  to  1836  this  vast  territory,  lying  between 
Louisiana  and  Mexico,  had  been  a  province  of  the 
latter  country.  For  a  long  time  it  had  been  the 
policy  of  Spain  and  Mexico  to  keep  Texas  unin 
habited,  in  order  that  the  vigorous  race  of  Ameri 
cans  might  not  encroach  on  the  Mexican  borders. 
At  last,  however,  a  large  land  grant  was  made  to 
Moses  Austin,  of  Connecticut,  on  condition  that  he 
would  settle  three  hundred  American  families 
within  the  limits  of  his  domain.  Afterward  the 
grant  was  confirmed  to  his  son  Stephen,  with  the 
privilege  of  establishing  five  hundred  additional 
families  of  immigrants.  Thus  the  foundation  of 
Texas  was  laid  by  people  who  were  of  the 
English  race. 

Owing  to  the  oppressive  policy  adopted  by  Mex 
ico,  the  Texans,  in  the  year  1835,  raised  the  stand 
ard  of  rebellion.  Many  adventurers  and  some 
heroes  from  the  United  States  flocked  to  their  aid. 
In  the  first  battle,  fought  at  Gonzales,  a  thousand 
Mexicans  were  defeated  by  a  Texan  force  number 
ing  five  hundred.  On  the  6th  of  March,  1836,  a 
Texan  fort,  called  the  Alamo,  was  surrounded  by 
a  Mexican  army  of  several  thousand,  commanded 


Administrations  of  Harrison  and  Tyler     593 

by  President  Santa  Anna.  The  feeble  garrison  was 
overpowered  and  massacred  under  circumstances 
of  great  atrocity.  The  daring  David  Crockett,  an 
ex-congressman  of  Tennessee,  and  a  famous  hunter, 
was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  butchery.  In  the 
next  month  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  San 
Jacinto,  which  gave  to  Texas  her  freedom.  The 
independence  of  the  new  State  was  acknowledged 
by  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  France. 

As  soon  as  the  people  of  Texas  had  thrown  off 
the  Mexican  yoke  they  asked  to  be  admitted  into 
the  Union.  At  first  the  proposition  was  declined  by 
President  Van  Buren,  who  feared  a  war  with  Mex 
ico.  In  the  last  year  of  Tyler's  administration  the 
question  of  annexation  was  again  agitated.  The 
population  of  Texas  had  increased  to  more  than 
two  hundred  thousand  souls.  The  territory  em 
braced  an  area  of  two  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
thousand  square  miles — a  domain  more  than  five 
times  as  large  as  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  It 
was  like  annexing  an  empire.  The  proposition  to 
admit  Texas  into  the  Union  was  the  great  question 
on  which  the  people  divided  in  the  presidential  elec 
tion  of  1844.  The  annexation  was  favored  by  the 
Democrats  and  opposed  by  the  Whigs.  The 
ground  of  Whig  opposition  was  the  fact  that  Texas 
would  become  a  slave  State  and  the  party  opposed 
the  extension  of  slavery.  James  K.  Polk,  of  Ten 
nessee,  was  put  forward  as  the  Democratic  candi 
date,  while  the  Whigs  chose  their  favorite  leader, 
Henry  Clay.  The  former  was  elected,  and  the 
hope  of  the  latter  to  reach  the  presidency  was  for- 


594  History  of  the  United  States 

ever  eclipsed.  For  Vice-President,  George  M. 
Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  chosen. 

The  convention  by  which  Mr.  Polk  was  nom 
inated  was  held  at  Baltimore.  On  the  29th  of 
May,  1844,  the  news  of  the  nomination  was  sent 
to  Washington  by  the  magnetic  telegraph.  It  was 
the  first  dispatch  ever  so  transmitted;  and  the  event 
marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  civilization.  The 
inventor  of  the  telegraph,  which  has  proved  so 
great  a  blessing  to  mankind,  was  Professor  Samuel 
F.  B.  Morse,  of  Massachusetts.  The  magnetic 
principle  on  which  the  invention  depends  had  been 
known  since  1774;  but  Professor  Morse  was  the 
first  to  apply  that  principle  for  the  benefit  of  men. 
He  began  his  experiments  in  1832;  and  five  years 
afterward  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  patent  on  his 
invention.  Then  followed  another  long  delay;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  last  day  of  the  session  in  1843 
that  he  procured  from  Congress  an  appropriation 
of  thirty  thousand  dollars.  With  that  appropria 
tion  was  constructed  between  Baltimore  and  Wash 
ington  the  first  telegraphic  line  in  the  world.  Per 
haps  no  other  invention  has  exercised  a  more  benefi 
cent  influence  on  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  the 
human  race. 

When  Congress  convened  in  December  of  1844, 
the  proposition  to  admit  Texas  into  the  Union  was 
formally  brought  forward.  During  the  winter  the 
question  was  frequently  debated;  and  on  the  ist  of 
March — only  three  days  before  Tyler's  retirement 
from  the  presidency — the  bill  of  annexation  was 
adopted.  The  President  immediately  gave  his  as- 


Folk's  Administration  595 

sent;  and  the  Lone  Star  took  its  place  in  the  con 
stellation  of  the  States.  On  the  day  before  the 
inauguration  of  Mr.  Polk  bills  for  the  admission 
of  Florida  and  Iowa  were  also  signed;  but  the  lat 
ter  State — the  twenty-ninth  member  of  the  Ameri 
can  Union — was  not  formally  admitted  until  the 
following  year. 


CHAPTER    XII 

FOLK'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  THE  MEXICAN  WAR, 
1845-1849 

PRESIDENT  POLK  was  a  native  of  North  Carolina. 
In  boyhood  he  removed  with  his  father  to  Tennes 
see;  entered  the  legislature  of  the  State;  and  was 
then  elected  to  Congress,  where  he  served  as  mem 
ber  or  speaker  for  fourteen  years.  In  1839  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  Tennessee,  and  from  that  posi 
tion  was  called,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-nine,  to 
the  presidential  chair.  At  the  head  of  the  new 
cabinet  was  placed  James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsyl 
vania.  It  was  an  office  requiring  high  abilities;  for 
the  threatening  question  with  Mexico  came  at  once 
to  a  crisis.  As  soon  as  the  resolution  to  annex 
Texas  was  adopted  by  Congress,  Almonte,  the 
Mexican  minister  at  Washington,  demanded  his 
passports  and  left  the  country. 

On  the  4th  of  July,  1845,  tne  Texan  legislature 
ratified  the  act  of  annexation;  and  the  union  was 


596  History  of  the  United  States 

completed.  Knowing  the  warlike  determination  of 
Mexico,  the  authorities  of  Texas  sent  an  immedi 
ate  and  urgent  request  to  the  President  to  dispatch 
an  army  for  their  protection.  Accordingly,  Gen 
eral  Zachary  Taylor  was  ordered 
to  march  from  Camp  Jessup,  in 
Western  Louisiana,  and  occupy 
Texas.  The  real  question  at  is 
sue  between  that  State  and  Mex 
ico  was  concerning  boundaries. 
Texas  claimed  the  Rio  Grande 
as  her  western  limit,  while 
Mexico  was  determined  to  have 

James  K.  Polk          .         XT 

President  1845-49  the  NuGces  as  the  separating^ 
line.  The  territory  between  these 
two  rivers  was  in  dispute.  The  government  of  the 
United  States  made  a  proposal  to  settle  the  con 
troversy  by  negotiation,  but  the  authorities  of  Mex 
ico  scornfully  refused.  This  refusal  was  construed 
by  the  Americans  as  a  virtual  acknowledgment 
that  the  Mexicans  were  in  the  wrong,  and  that  the 
Rio  Grande  might  justly  be  claimed  as  the  boun 
dary.  Instructions  were  accordingly  sent  to  Gen 
eral  Taylor  to  advance  his  army  as  near  to  that 
river  as  circumstances  would  warrant.  Under  these 
orders  he  moved  forward  to  Corpus  Christi,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nueces,  established  a  camp,  and 
by  the  beginning  of  November,  1845,  had  concen 
trated  a  force  of  between  four  and  five  thousand 
men. 

In  the  following  January  General  Taylor  was 
ordered  to  advance  to  the  Rio  Grande.     It  was 


Folk's  Administration  597 

known  that  the  Mexican  government  had  resolved 
not  to  receive  the  American  ambassador  sent  thither 
to  negotiate  a  settlement.  It  had  also  transpired 
that  an  army  of  Mexicans  was  gathering  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  country  for  the  invasion  of 
Texas,  or,  at  any  rate,  for  the  occupation  of  the 
disputed  territory.  On  the  8th  of  March  the 
American  army  began  the  advance  from  Corpus 
Christi  to  Point  Isabel,  on  the  gulf.  At  that  place 
General  Taylor  established  a  depot  of  supplies,  and 
then  pressed  forward  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Arriv 
ing  at  the  river  a  few  miles  above  the  mouth,  he 
took  his  station  opposite  Matamoras  and  hastily 
erected  a  fortress,  afterward  named  Fort  Brown. 

On  the  26th  of  April,  General  Ampudia,  com 
mander  of  the  Mexican  forces  on  the  frontier, 
notified  General  Taylor  that  hostilities  had  begun. 
On  the  same  day  a  company  of  American  dragoons, 
commanded  by  Captain  Thornton,  was  attacked  by 
a  body  of  Mexicans,  east  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
after  losing  sixteen  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
was  obliged  to  surrender.  This  was  the  first  blood 
shed  of  the  war.  General  Taylor,  alarmed  lest 
the  Mexicans  should  make  a  circuit  and  capture 
his  stores  at  Point  Isabel,  hastened  to  that  place 
and  strengthened  the  defenses.  The  fort  opposite 
Matamoras  was  left  under  command  of  Major 
Brown  with  a  garrison  of  three  hundred  men. 

As  soon  as  his  supplies  at  Point  Isabel  were 
deemed  secure,  General  Taylor  set  out  with  a  pro 
vision  train  and  an  army  of  more  than  two  thou 
sand  men  to  return  to  Fort  Brown.  Meanwhile, 


598  History  of  the  United  States 

the  Mexicans  to  the  number  of  six  thousand  had 
crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  taken  a  strong  position 
at  Palo  Alto,  directly  in  Taylor's  route.  At  noon 
on  the  8th  of  May  the  Americans  came  in  sight 
and  immediately  joined  battle.  After  an  engage 
ment  of  five  hours'  duration  the  Mexicans  were 
driven  from  the  field,  with  the  loss  of  a  hundred 
men.  The  American  artillery  was  served  with  sig 
nal  effect;  while  the  fighting  of  the  enemy  was 
clumsy  and  ineffectual.  Only  four  Americans  were 
killed  and  forty  wounded;  but  among  the  former 
was  the  gallant  and  much  lamented  Major  Ring- 
gold  of  the  artillery. 

On  the  following  day  General  Taylor  resumed 
his  march  in  the  direction  of  Fort  Brown.  When 
within  three  miles  of  that  place,  he  again  came 
upon  the  Mexicans,  who  had  rallied  in  full  force 
to  dispute  his  advance.  They  had  selected  for  their 
second  battlefield  a  place  called  Resaca  de  la  Palma. 
Here  an  old  river  bed,  dry  and  overgrown  with 
cactus,  crossed  the  road  leading  to  the  fort.  The 
enemy's  artillery  was  well  posted  and  better  served 
than  on  the  previous  day.  The  American  lines 
were  severely  galled  until  the  brave  Captain  May 
with  his  regiment  of  dragoons  charged  through  a 
storm  of  grape  shot,  rode  over  the  Mexican  bat 
teries,  sabered  the  gunners,  and  captured  La  Vega, 
the  commanding  general.  The  Mexicans,  aban 
doning  their  guns  and  flinging  away  their  accouter- 
ments,  fled  in  a  general  rout.  Before  nightfall  they 
had  put  the  Rio  Grande  between  themselves  and 
the  invincible  Americans.  On  reaching  Fort 


Folk's  Administration  599 

Brown,  General  Taylor  found  that  during  his  ab 
sence  the  place  had  been  constantly  bombarded  by 
the  guns  of  Matamoras.  But  a  brave  defense  had 
been  made,  which  cost,  with  other  losses  and  suf 
fering,  the  life  of  Major  Brown,  the  commandant. 
Such  was  the  beginning  of  a  war  in  which  Mexico 
experienced  a  long  list  of  humiliating  defeats. 

When  the  news  of  the  battles  on  the  Rio  Grande 
was  borne  through  the  Union,  the  war  spirit  was 
everywhere  aroused.  Party  dissensions  were 
hushed  into  silence.  The  President,  in  a  message 
to  Congress,  notified  that  body  that  the  lawless 
soldiery  of  Mexico  had  shed  the  blood  of  American 
citizens  on  American  soil.  On  the  I3th  of  May, 
1846,  Congress  promptly  responded  with  a  dec 
laration  that  war  already  existed  by  the  act  of  the 
Mexican  government.  The  President  was  author 
ized  to  accept  the  services  of  fifty  thousand  volun 
teers,  and  ten  million  dollars  were  placed  at  his  dis 
posal.  War  meetings  were  held  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  within  a  few  weeks  nearly  three  hun 
dred  thousand  men  rushed  forward  to  enter  the 
ranks.  A  grand  invasion  of  Mexico  was  planned 
by  General  Scott.  The  American  forces  were  or 
ganized  in  three  divisions :  The  Army  of  the  West, 
under  General  Kearny,  to  cross  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains  and  conquer  the  northern  Mexican  provinces ; 
the  Army  of  the  Centre,  under  General  Scott  as 
commander-in-chief,  to  march  from  the  gulf  coast 
into  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  country;  the  Army 
of  Occupation,  commanded  by  General  Taylor,  to 
subdue  and  hold  the  districts  on  the  Rio  Grande. 


6oo  History  of  the  United  States 

The  work  of  mustering  the  American  troops  was 
intrusted  to  General  Wool.  By  the  middle  of 
summer  he  succeeded  in  dispatching  to  General 
Taylor  a  force  of  nine  thousand  men.  He  then 
established  his  camp  at  San  Antonio,  Texas,  and 
from  that  point  prepared  the  gathering  recruits 
for  the  field.  Meanwhile,  Taylor  had  resumed 
active  operations  on  the  Rio  Grande.  Ten  days 
after  the  battle  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma  he  crossed 
from  Fort  Brown  and  captured  Matamoras.  Soon 
afterward  he  began  his  march  up  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  and  into  the  interior.  The  Mexicans, 
grown  wary  of  their  antagonist,  fell  back  and  took 
post  at  the  fortified  town  of  Monterey.  To  cap 
ture  that  place  was  the  next  object  of  the  campaign ; 
but  the  American  army  was  feeble  in  numbers,  and 
General  Taylor  was  obliged  to  tarry  near  the  Rio 
Grande  until  the  latter  part  of  August.  By  that 
time  re-enforcements  had  arrived,  increasing  his 
numbers  to  six  thousand  six  hundred.  With  this 
force  the  march  against  Monterey  was  begun ;  and 
on  the  i  Qth  of  September  the  town,  defended  by 
fully  ten  thousand  troops,  under  command  of  Am- 
pudia,  was  reached  and  invested. 

The  siege  was  pressed  with  great  vigor.  On 
the  2  ist  of  the  month  several  assaults  were  made, 
in  which  the  Americans,  led  by  General  Worth, 
carried  the  fortified  heights  in  the  rear  of  the 
town.  In  that  part  of  the  defenses  only  the  bishop's 
palace — a  strong  building  of  stone — remained;  and 
this  was  taken  by  storm  on  the  following  day.  On 
the  morning  of  the  23d  the  city  was  successfully 


Folk's  Administration  60 1 

assaulted  in  front  by  Generals  Quitman  and  But 
ler.  In  the  face  of  a  tremendous  cannonade  and 
an  incessant  tempest  of  musket  balls  discharged 
from  the  house  tops  and  alleys,  the  American 
storming  parties  charged  resistlessly  into  the  town. 
They  reached  the  Grand  Plaza,  or  public  square. 
They  hoisted  the  victorious  flag  of  the  Union. 
They  turned  upon  the  buildings  where  the  Mex 
icans  were  concealed;  broke  open  the  doors; 
charged  up  dark  stairways  to  the  flat  roofs  of  the 
houses;  and  drove  the  terrified  enemy  to  an  igno 
minious  surrender.  The  honors  of  war  were 
granted  to  Ampudia,  who  evacuated  the  city  and 
retired  toward  the  capital.  The  storming  of  Mon 
terey  was  a  signal  victory,  gained  against  great  su 
periority  of  numbers  and  advantage  of  position. 

The  famous  general  Santa  Anna  returned  from 
his  exile  at  Havana  and  again  became  president 
of  the  country.  In  the  course  of  the  autumn  a 
Mexican  army  of  twenty  thousand  men  was  raised 
and  sent  into  the  field.  General  Taylor,  acting 
under  orders  of  the  War  Department,  again  moved 
forward.  On  the  I5th  of  November,  the  town 
of  Saltillo,  seventy  miles  southwest  from  Monte 
rey,  was  captured  by  the  American  advance  under 
General  Worth.  In  the  following  month,  Victo 
ria,  a  city  in  the  province  of  Tamaulipas,  was  taken 
by  the  command  of  General  Patterson.  To  that 
place  General  Butler  advanced  from  Monterey  on 
the  march  against  Tampico,  on  the  river  Panuco. 
At  Victoria,  however,  he  learned  that  Tampico  had 
already  capitulated  to  Captain  Conner,  com- 


602  History  of  the  United  States 

mander  of  an  American  flotilla.  Meantime,  Gen 
eral  Wool,  advancing  with  strong  re-enforcements 
from  San  Antonio,  entered  Mexico,  and  took  a  po 
sition  within  supporting  distance  of  Monterey.  It 
was  at  this  juncture  that  General  Scott  arrived  and 
assumed  the  command  of  the  American  forces. 

The  Army  of  the  West  had  not  been  idle.  In 
June  of  1846  General  Kearny  set  out  from  Fort 
Leavenworth,  on  the  Missouri,  for  the  conquest 
of  New  Mexico  and  California.  After  a  long  and 
wearisome  march  he  reached  Santa  Fe,  and  on  the 
1 8th  of  August  captured  and  garrisoned  the  city. 
The  whole  of  New  Mexico  submitted  without  fur 
ther  resistance.  With  a  body  of  four  hundred  dra 
goons  Kearny  then  continued  his  march  toward 
the  Pacific  coast.  At  the  distance  of  three  hundred 
miles  from  Santa  Fe  he  was  met  by  the  famous 
Kit  Carson,  who  brought  intelligence  from  the 
far  West  that  California  had  already  been  sub 
dued.  Kearny  accordingly  sent  back  three-fourths 
of  his  forces,  and  with  a  party  of  only  a  hundred 
men  made  his  way  to  the  Pacific.  On  that  far-off 
coast  stirring  events  had  happened. 

For  four  years  Colonel  John  C.  Fremont  had 
been  exploring  the  country  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  had  hoisted  the  American  flag  on 
the  highest  peak  of  the  great  range,  and  then 
directed  his  route  by  Salt  Lake  to  Oregon.  Turn 
ing  southward  into  California,  he  received  dis 
patches  informing  him  of  the  impending  war  with 
Mexico.  Determined  to  strike  a  blow  for  his  coun 
try,  he  urged  the  people  of  California,  many  of 


Folk's  Administration  603 

whom  were  Americans,  to  declare  their  independ 
ence.  The  hardy  frontiersmen  of  the  Sacramento 
valley  flocked  to  his  standard;  and  a  campaign  was 
at  once  begun  to  overthrow  the  Mexican  authority. 
In  several  petty  engagements  the  Americans  were 
victorious  over  greatly  superior  numbers.  Mean 
while,  Commodore  Sloat,  commanding  an  Ameri 
can  fleet,  had  captured  the  town  of  Monterey,  on 
the  coast,  eighty  miles  south  of  San  Francisco.  A 
few  days  afterward  Commodore  Stockton  took 
command  of  the  Pacific  squadron  and  made  him 
self  master  of  San  Diego.  Before  the  end  of  sum 
mer  the  whole  of  the  vast  province  was  subdued. 
In  November  General  Kearny  arrived  with  his 
company  and  joined  Fremont  and  Stockton.  About 
a  month  later  the  Mexicans  rose  in  rebellion,  but 
were  defeated  on  the  8th  of  January,  1847,  m 
the  decisive  battle  of  San  Gabriel,  by  which  the 
authority  of  the  United  States  was  completely  es 
tablished.  A  country  large  enough  for  an  empire 
had  been  conquered  by  a  handful  of  resolute  men. 
In  the  mean  time,  Colonel  Doniphan,  who  had 
been  left  by  Kearny  in  command  of  New  Mexico, 
had  made  one  of  the  most  brilliant  movements  of 
the  war.  With  a  body  of  seven  hundred  fearless 
men  he  began  a  march  through  the  enemy's  coun 
try  from  Santa  Fe  to  Saltillo,  a  distance  of  more 
than  eight  hundred  miles.  Reaching  the  Rio 
Grande  on  Christmas  day,  he  fought  and  gained 
the  battle  of  Bracito;  then,  crossing  the  river,  cap 
tured  El  Paso,  and  in  two  months  pressed  his  way 
to  within  twenty  miles  of  Chihuahua.  On  the 


604  History  of  the  United  States 

banks  of  Sacramento  Creek  he  met  the  Mexicans 
in  overwhelming  numbers,  and  on  the  28th  of 
February  completely  routed  them.  He  then 
marched  unopposed  into  Chihuahua — a  city  of 
more  than  forty  thousand  inhabitants — and  finally 
reached  the  division  of  General  Wool  in  safety. 

As  soon  as  General  Scott  arrived  in  Mexico  he 
ordered  a  large  part  of  the  Army  of  Occupation 
to  join  him  on  the  gulf  for  the  conquest  of  the 
capital.  By  the  withdrawal  of  these  troops  from 
the  divisions  of  Taylor  and  Wool  these  officers 
were  left  in  a  very  exposed  and  critical  condition; 
for  Santa  Anna  was  rapidly  advancing  against  them 
with  an  army  of  twenty  thousand  men.  To  resist 
this  tremendous  array  General  Taylor  was  able  to 
concentrate  at  Saltillo  a  force  numbering  not  more 
than  six  thousand;  and  after  putting  sufficient  gar 
risons  in  that  town  and  Monterey,  his  effective 
forces  amounted  to  but  four  thousand  eight  hun 
dred.  With  this  small  but  resolute  army  he 
marched  boldly  out  to  meet  the  Mexican  host.  A 
favorable  battle-ground  was  chosen  at  Buena  Vista, 
four  miles  south  of  Saltillo.  Here  Taylor  posted 
his  troops  and  awaited  the  enemy. 

On  the  22d  of  February  the  Mexicans,  twenty 
thousand  strong,  came  pouring  through  the  gorges 
and  over  the  hills  from  the  direction  of  San  Luis 
Potosi.  Santa  Anna  demanded  a  surrender,  and 
was  met  with  defiance.  On  the  morning  of  the 
23d  the  battle  began  with  an  effort  to  outflank 
the  American  position  on  the  right;  but  the  at 
tempt  was  thwarted  by  the  troops  of  Illinois.  A 


Polk's  Administration  605 

heavy  column  was  then  thrown  against  the  center, 
only  to  be  shattered  and  driven  back  by  Captain 
Washington's  artillery.  The  Mexicans  next  fell 
in  great  force  upon  the  American  left  flank,  where 
the  second  regiment  of  Indianians,  acting  under 
a  mistaken  order,  gave  way,  putting  the  army  in 
great  peril.  But  the  troops  of  Mississippi  and 
Kentucky  were  rallied  to  the  breach;  the  men  of 
Illinois  and  Indiana  came  bravely  to  the  support; 
and  again  the  enemy  was  hurled  back.  In  the  crisis 
of  the  battle  the  Mexicans  made  a  furious  and  final 
charge  upon  Captain  Bragg's  battery;  but  the 
gunners  stood  at  their  posts  undaunted,  and  the 
columns  of  lancers  were  scattered  with  terrible  vol 
leys  of  grapeshot.  A  charge  of  American  cavalry, 
though  made  at  the  sacrifice  of  many  lives,  added 
to  the  discomfiture  of  the  foe.  Against  tremen 
dous  odds  the  field  was  fairly  won.  On  the  night 
after  the  battle  the  Mexicans,  having  lost  nearly 
two  thousand  men,  made  a  precipitate  retreat.  The 
American  loss  was  also  severe,  amounting  in  killed, 
wounded  and  missing,  to  seven  hundred  and  forty- 
six.  This  was  the  last  of  General  Taylor's  battles. 
He  soon  afterward  returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm. 

On  the  9th  of  March,  1847,  General  Scott  be 
gan  the  last  campaign  of  the  war.  With  a  force 
of  twelve  thousand  men  he  landed  to  the  south 
of  Vera  Cruz,  and  in  three  days  the  investment 
of  the  city  was  completed.  Trenches  were  opened 
at  the  distance  of  eight  hundred  yards;  and  on 
the  morning  of  the  22d  the  cannonade  was  begun. 


THE   aOBXICAlT 


606  History  of  the  United  States 

On  the  water  side  Vera  Cruz  was  defended  by 
the  celebrated  castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  erected 
by  Spain  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen 
tury,  at  the  cost  of  four  million  dollars.  For  four 

days  an  incessant  storm  of 
shot  and  shell  from  the 
fleet  of  Commodore  Con 
ner  and  the  land  batteries 
of  Scott  was  poured  up 
on  the  doomed  castle  and 
town.  Life  and  property 
were  swept  into  a  com 
mon  ruin.  An  assault  was 
already  planned,  when  the 
humbled  authorities  of 
the  city  proposed  capitu 
lation.  On  the  night  of 
the  27th  terms  of  surren 


der  were   signed,    and   two    days   afterwards   the 
American  flag  floated  over  Vera  Cruz. 

The  route  from  the  gulf  to  the  capital  was  now 
open.  On  the  8th  of  April  General  Twiggs,  in 
command  of  the  American  advance,  set  out  on  the 
road  to  Jalapa.  The  main  division,  led  by  General 
Scott  in  person,  followed  immediately.  For  sev 
eral  days  there  was  no  serious  opposition;  but  on 
the  1 2th  of  the  month  Twiggs  came  upon  Santa 
Anna,  who,  with  an  army  of  fifteen  thousand  men, 
had  taken  possession  of  the  heights  and  rocky  pass 
of  Cerro  Gordo.  The  position,  though  seemingly 
impregnable,  must  be  carried,  or  further  advance 
was  impossible.  On  the  morning  of  the  i8th  the 


Polk's  Administration  607 

American  army  was  arranged  for  an  assault  which, 
according  to  all  the  rules  of  war,  promised  only 
disaster  and  ruin.  But  to  the  troops  of  the  United 
States  nothing  now  seemed  too  arduous,  no  deed 
too  full  of  peril.  Before  noonday  every  position 
of  the  Mexicans  had  been  successfully  stormed  and 
themselves  driven  into  a  precipitate  rout.  Nearly 
three  thousand  prisoners  were  taken,  together  with 
forty-three  pieces  of  bronze  artillery,  five  thousand 
muskets  and  accouterments  enough  to  supply  an 
army.  The  American  loss  amounted  to  four  hun 
dred  and  thirty-one,  that  of  the  enemy  to  fully 
a  thousand.  Santa  Anna  escaped  with  his  life, 
but  left  behind  his  private  papers  and  wooden 
leg. 

On  the  next  day  the  victorious  army  entered 
Jalapa.  On  the  22d  the  strong  castle  of  Perote, 
crowning  a  peak  of  the  Cordilleras,  was  taken 
without  resistance.  Here  another  park  of  artil 
lery  and  a  vast  amount  of  warlike  stores  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Turning  southward, 
General  Scott  next  led  his  army  against  the  ancient 
and  sacred  city  of  Puebla.  Though  inhabited  by 
eighty  thousand  people,  no  defense  was  made  or 
attempted.  The  handful  of  invaders  marched  un 
opposed  through  the  gates,  and  on  the  i5th  of 
May  took  up  their  quarters  in  the  city.  The  Amer 
ican  army  was  now  reduced  to  five  thousand  men, 
and  General  Scott  was  obliged  to  pause  until  re-en 
forcements  could  be  brought  forward  from  Vera 
Cruz. 

By  the  7th  of  August  General  Scott  had  received 


6o8  History  of  the  United  States 

re-enforcements,  2400  men  under  the  command  of 
a  future  President  of  the  United  States — Franklin 
Pierce.  Leaving  a  small  garrison  in  Puebla,  he 
again  began  his  march  upon  the  capital.  The  route 
now  lay  over  the  summit  of  the  Cordilleras.  At 
the  passes  of  the  mountains  resistance  had  been 
expected;  but  the  advance  was  unopposed,  and 
the  army  swept  through  to  look  down  on  the  Val 
ley  of  Mexico.  Never  before  had  the  American 
soldiery  beheld  such  a  scene.  Clear  to  the  horizon 
stretched  a  most  living  landscape  of  green  fields, 
villages  and  lakes — a  picture  too  beautiful  to  be 
torn  with  the  dread  enginery  of  war. 

The  army  pressed  on  to  Ayotla,  only  fifteen 
miles  from  the  capital.  Thus  far  General  Scott 
had  followed  the  great  national  road  from  Vera 
Cruz  to  Mexico;  but  now,  owing  to  the  many 
fortifications  and  dangerous  passes  in  front,  it  was 
deemed  advisable  to  change  the  route.  From 
Ayotla,  therefore,  the  army  wheeled  to  the  south, 
around  Lake  Chalco,  and  thence  westward  to  San 
Augustine.  From  this  place  it  was  but  ten  miles 
to  the  capital.  The  city  could  be  approached  only 
by  causeways  leading  across  marshes  and  the  beds 
of  bygone  lakes.  At  the  ends  of  these  causeways 
were  massive  gates  strongly  defended.  To  the  left 
of  the  line  of  march  were  the  almost  inaccessible 
positions  of  Contreras,  San  Antonio,  and  Molino 
del  Rey.  Directly  in  front,  beyond  the  marshes 
and  closer  to  the  city,  were  the  powerful  defenses 
of  Churubusco  and  Chapultepec,  the  latter  a  castle 
of  great  strength.  These  variou^  positions  were 


Folk's  Administration  609 

held  by  Santa  Anna  with  a  force  of  more  than 
thirty  thousand  Mexicans.  That  General  Scott, 
with  an  army  not  one-third  as  great  in  numbers, 
could  take  the  city  seemed  an  impossibility.  But 
he  was  resolved  to  do  it. 

On  the  iQth  of  August  the  divisions  of  Generals 
Pillow  and  Twiggs  were  ordered  to  storm  the  Mex 
ican  position  at  Contreras.  About  nightfall  the 
line  of  communications  between  that  place  and 
Santa  Anna's  reserves  was  cut,  and  in  the  darkness 
of  the  following  midnight  an  assaulting  column, 
led  by  General  Persifer  F.  Smith,  moved  against 
the  enemy's  camp.  The  attack  was  made  at  sun 
rise,  and  in  seventeen  minutes  six  thousand  Mex 
icans,  commanded  by  General  Valencia,  were 
driven  in  utter  rout  from  their  fortifications.  The 
American  storming  party  numbered  less  than  four 
thousand.  This  was  the  first  victory  of  that  mem 
orable  2Oth  of  August.  A  few  hours  afterward 
General  Worth  advanced  against  San  Antonio, 
compelled  an  evacuation  and  routed  the  flying  gar 
rison.  This  was  the  second  victory.  Almost  at 
the  same  time  General  Pillow  led  a  column  against 
one  of  the  heights  of  Churubusco  where  the  enemy 
had  concentrated  in  great  force.  After  a  terrible 
assault  the  position  was  carried  and  the  Mexicans 
scattered  like  chaff.  This  was  the  third  triumph. 
The  division  of  General  Twiggs  added  a  fourth 
victory  by  storming  and  holding  another  height 
of  Churubusco,  while  the  fifth  and  last  was 
achieved  by  Generals  Shields  and  Pierce,  who  de 
feated  Santa  Anna,  coming  to  re-enforce  his  gar- 


610  History  of  the  United  States 

risons.  The  whole  Mexican  army  was  hurled  back 
upon  the  remaining  fortification  of  Chapultepec. 

On  the  morning  after  the  battles  the  Mexican 
authorities  sent  out  a  proposition  to  negotiate.  It 
was  only  a  ruse  to  gain  time,  for  the  terms  pro 
posed  by  them  were  such  as  conquerors  would  have 
dictated  to  the  vanquished.  General  Scott,  who 
did  not  consider  his  army  vanquished,  rejected  the 
proposals  with  scorn,  rested  his  men  until  the  yth 
of  September,  and  then  renewed  hostilities.  On 
the  next  morning  General  Worth  was  ordered  to 
take  Molino  del  Rey  and  Casa  de  Mata,  the  west 
ern  defenses  of  Chapultepec.  These  positions  were 
held  by  fourteen  thousand  Mexicans;  but  the 
Americans,  after  losing  a  fourth  of  their  number 
in  the  desperate  onset,  were  again  victorious.  The 
guns  were  next  brought  to  bear  on  Chapultepec 
itself,  and  on  the  I3th  of  the  month  that  frowning 
citadel  was  carried  by  storm.  Through  the  San 
Cosme  and  Belen  gates  the  conquering  army  swept 
resistlessly,  and  at  nightfall  the  soldiers  of  the 
Union  were  in  the  suburbs  of  Mexico. 

In  the  darkness  of  that  night  Santa  Anna  and 
the  officers  of  the  government  fled  from  the  city; 
but  not  until  they  had  turned  loose  two  thousand 
convicts  to  fire  upon  the  American  army.  On  the 
following  morning,  before  day-dawn,  forth  came 
a  deputation  from  the  city  to  beg  for  mercy.  This 
time  the  messengers  were  in  earnest;  but  General 
Scott,  weary  of  trifling,  turned  them  away  with 
contempt.  "  Forward!  "  was  the  order  that  rang 
along  the  American  lines  at  sunrise.  The  war- 


Folk's  Administration  6n 

worn  regiments  swept  into  the  beautiful  streets  of 
the  famous  city,  and  at  seven  o'clock  the  flag  of 
the  United  States  floated  over  the  halls  of  the 
Montezumas.  So  ended  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
campaigns  known  in  modern  history. 

On  leaving  his  conquered  capital  Santa  Anna, 
with  his  usual  treachery,  turned  about  to  attack 
the  American  hospitals  at  Puebla.  Here  about 
eighteen  hundred  sick  men  had  been  left  in  charge 
of  Colonel  Childs.  For  several  days  a  gallant  re 
sistance  was  made  by  the  feeble  garrison,  until 
General  Lane,  on  his  march  to  the  capital,  fell 
upon  the  besiegers  and  scattered  them.  It  was  the 
closing  stroke  of  the  war — a  contest  in  which  the 
Americans,  few  in  number  and  in  a  far-distant, 
densely  peopled  country,  had  gained  every  vic 
tory. 

The  military  power  of  Mexico  was  now  com 
pletely  broken.  Santa  Anna  was  a  fugitive.  It 
only  remained  to  determine  the  conditions  of  peace. 
In  the  winter  of  1847-48  American  ambassadors 
met  the  Mexican  congress,  in  session  at  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo,  and  on  the  2d  of  February  a  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  two  nations.  The  com 
pact  was  ratified  by  both  governments,  and  on  the 
4th  of  the  following  July  President  Polk  made 
a  proclamation  of  peace.  By  the  terms  of  settle 
ment  the  boundary  line  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States  was  fixed  as  follows:  The  Rio 
Grande  from  its  mouth  to  the  southern  limit  of 
New  Mexico ;  thence  westward  along  the  southern 
and  northward  along  the  western  boundary  of  that 


6 12  History  of  the  United  States 

territory  to  the  river  Gila ;  thence  down  that  river 
to  the  Colorado;  thence  westward  to  the  Pacific. 
The  whole  of  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California 
was  relinquished  to  the  United  States.  Mexico 

guaranteed  the  free 
navigation  of  the 
Gulf  of  California, 
and  the  river  Colo 
rado  from  its  mouth 
to  the  confluence  of 
the  Gila.  In  consid 
eration  of  these  ter 
ritorial  acquisitions 
and  privileges  the 
United  States 
agreed  to  surrender 
all  places  held  by 
military  occupation  in  Mexico,  to  pay  into  the 
treasury  of  that  country  fifteen  million  dollars, 
and  to  assume  all  debts  due  from  the  Mexican 
government  to  American  citizens,  said  debts  not 
to  exceed  three  million  five  hundred  thousand  dol 
lars.  Thus  at  last  was  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  spread  out  in  one  broad  belt  from  ocean  to 
ocean. 

A  few  days  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  an  event  occurred  in  California  which  spread 
excitement  through  the  civilized  world.  A  laborer, 
employed  by  Captain  Sutter  to  cut  a  mill  race  on 
the  American  fork  of  Sacramento  River,  discov 
ered  some  pieces  of  gold  in  the  sand  where  he  was 
digging.  With  further  search  other  particles  were 


Finding  Gold 


Folk's  Administration  613 

found.    The  news  spread  as  if  borne  on  the  wind. 
From    all    quarters    adventurers    came    flocking. 
Other  explorations  led  to  further  revelations  of 
the  precious  metal.     For  a  while  there  seemed  no 
end  to  the  discoveries.     Straggling  gold  hunters 
sometimes  picked  up  in  a 
few   hours   the   value   of 
five  hundred  dollars.  The 
intelligence     went    flying 
through  the  States  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  then  to  the 
ends  of  the  world.     Men       Crossing  the   Plains 
thousands  of  miles  away 

were  crazed  with  excitement.  Workshops  were 
shut  up,  business  houses  abandoned,  fertile  farms 
left  tenantless,  offices  deserted.  Though  the  over 
land  routes  to  California  were  scarcely  yet  discov 
ered,  thousands  of  eager  adventurers  started  on 
the  long,  long  journey.  Before  the  end  of  1850 
San  Francisco  had  grown  from  a  miserable  village 
of  huts  to  a  city  of  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants. 
By  the  close  of  1852  the  territory  had  a  population 
of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million.  The  impor 
tance  of  the  gold  mines  of  California,  whose  rich 
ness  is  not  yet  exhausted,  can  hardly  be  overes 
timated. 

In  the  first  summer  of  President  Folk's  adminis 
tration  the  country  was  called  to  mourn  the  death 
of  General  Jackson.  The  veteran  warrior  and 
statesman  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  and 
died  at  his  home,  called  the  Hermitage,  in  Ten 
nessee.  On  the  23d  of  February,  1848,  ex-Presi- 


6 14  History  of  the  United  States 

dent  John  Quincy  Adams  died  at  the  city  of 
Washington.  At  the  time  of  his  decease  he  was 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
was  struck  with  paralysis  in  the  very  seat  from 
which  he  had  so  many  times  electrified  the  nation 
with  his  eloquence. 

In  1848  Wisconsin,  the  last  of  the  five  great 
States  formed  from  the  Northwestern  Territory, 
was  admitted  into  the  Union.  The  new  common 
wealth  came  with  a  population  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  and  an  area  of  nearly  fifty-four 
thousand  square  miles.  By  establishing  the  St. 
Croix  instead  of  the  Mississippi  as  the  western 
boundary  of  the  State,  Wisconsin  lost  a  consider 
able  district  rightfully  belonging  to  her  territory. 

Another  presidential  election  was  at  hand. 
Three  well-known  candidates  were  presented  for 
the  suffrages  of  the  people.  General  Lewis  Cass,  of 
Michigan,  was  nominated  by  the  Democrats,  and 
General  Zachary  Taylor  by  the  Whigs.  As  the 
candidate  of  the  new  Free  Soil  party,  ex-President 
Martin  Van  Buren  was  put  forward.  The  rise 
of  this  new  party  was  traceable  to  a  question  con 
cerning  the  territory  acquired  by  the  Mexican 
war.  In  1846  David  Wilmot,  of  Pennsylvania, 
brought  before  Congress  a  bill  to  prohibit  slavery 
in  all  the  territory  which  might  be  secured  by 
treaty  with  Mexico.  The  bill  was  defeated;  but 
the  advocates  of  the  measure,  which  was  called  the 
Wilmot  Proviso,  formed  themselves  into  a  party, 
and  in  June  of  1848  nominated  Mr.  Van  Buren 
for  the  presidency.  The  real  contest,  however, 


Administrations  of  Taylor  and  Fillmore     615 

lay  between  Generals  Cass  and  Taylor.  The  posi 
tion  of  the  two  leading  parties  on  the  question  of 
slavery  in  the  new  territories  was  as  yet  not  clearly 
defined,  and  the  election  was  left  to  turn  on  the 
personal  popularity  of  the  candidates.  The  mem 
ory  of  his  recent  victories  in  Mexico  made  General 
Taylor  the  favorite  with  the  people,  and  he  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority.  As  Vice-President, 
Millard  Fillmore  of  New  York,  was  chosen.  So 
closed  the  agitated  but  not  inglorious  administra 
tion  of  President  Polk. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

ADMINISTRATIONS     OF     TAYLOR    AND     FILLMORE, 
1849-1853 

THE  new  President  was  a  Virginian  by  birth,  a 
Kentuckian  by  breeding,  a  soldier  by  profession. 
In  1808  he  left  the  farm  to  accept  a  commission 
in  the  army.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  Northwest,  especially  in 
defending  Fort  Harrison  against  the  Red  men. 
In  the  Seminole  War  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part, 
but  earned  his  greatest  renown  in  Mexico.  His 
reputation,  though  strictly  military,  was  enviable, 
and  his  character  above  reproach.  His  administra 
tion  began  with  a  violent  agitation  on  the  question 
of  slavery  in  the  territories;  California,  the  El 
Dorado  of  the  West,  was  the  origin  of  the  dispute. 


616  History  of  the  United  States 

In  his  first  message  President  Taylor  expressed 
his  sympathy  with  the  Californians,  and  advised 
them  to  form  a  State  government  preparatory  to 
admission  into  the  Union.  The  advice  was 

promptly  accepted.  A 
convention  of  delegates 
was  held  at  Monterey 
in  September  of  1849. 
A  constitution  pro 
hibiting  slavery  was 
framed,  submitted  to 
the  people,  and  adopt 
ed  with  but  little  op 
position.  Peter  H. 
Burnet  was  elected 
governor  of  the  Terri 
tory;  members  of  a 
general  assembly  were  chosen;  and  on  the  2Oth  of 
December,  1849,  the  new  government  was  organ 
ized  at  San  Jose.  At  the  same  time  a  petition  in  the 
usual  form  was  forwarded  to  Congress  asking  for 
the  admission  of  California  as  a  State. 

The  presentation  of  the  petition  was  the  signal 
for  a  bitter  controversy.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
admission  of  Missouri,  the  members  of  Congress, 
and  to  a  great  extent  the  people,  were  sectionally 
divided.  But  now  the  position  of  the  parties  was 
reversed;  the  proposition  to  admit  the  new  State 
was  favored  by  the  representatives  of  the  North 
and  opposed  by  those  of  the  South.  The  ground 
of  the  opposition  was  that  with  the  extension  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  line  to  the  Pacific  the 


Zachary   Taylor 
President  1849-50 


Administrations  of  Taylor  and  Fillmore     617 

right  to  introduce  slavery  into  California  was  guar 
anteed  by  the  general  government,  and  that  there 
fore  the  proposed  constitution  of  the  State  ought 
to  be  rejected.  The  reply  of  the  North  was  that 
the  argument  could  apply  only  to  a  part  of  the 
new  State,  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  had  re 
spect  only  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  that  the 
people  of  California  had  framed  their  constitution 
in  their  own  way.  Such  was  the  issue;  and  the 
debates  grew  more  and  more  violent,  until  the  sta 
bility  of  the  Union  was  seriously  endangered. 

Other  exciting  questions  added  fuel  to  the  con 
troversy.  Texas  claimed  New  Mexico  as  a  part 
of  her  territory,  and  the  claim  was  resisted  by  the 
people  of  Santa  Fe,  who  desired  a  separate  govern 
ment.  The  people  of  the  South  complained  bit 
terly  that  fugitive  slaves,  escaping  from  their  mas 
ters,  were  aided  and  encouraged  in  the  North.  The 
opponents  of  slavery  demanded  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Along  the 
whole  line  of  controversy  there  was  a  spirit  of  sus 
picion,  recrimination,  and  anger. 

The  illustrious  Henry  Clay  appeared  as  a  peace 
maker.  In  the  spring  of  1850  he  was  appointed 
chairman  of  a  committee  of  thirteen,  to  whom  all 
the  questions  under  discussion  were  referred.  On 
the  9th  of  May  he  brought  forward,  as  a  com 
promise  covering  all  the  points  in  dispute,  the  Om 
nibus  Bill,  of  which  the  provisions  were  as  fol 
lows  :  First,  the  admission  of  California  as  a  free 
State ;  second,  the  formation  of  new  States,  not  ex 
ceeding  four  in  number,  out  of  the  territory  of 


6i8 


History  of  the  United  States 


Texas,  said  States  to  permit  or  exclude  slavery  as 
the  people  should  determine;  third,  the  organiza 
tion  of  territorial  governments  for  New  Mexico 
and  Utah,  without  conditions  on  the  question  of 
slavery;  fourth,  the  establishment  of  the  present 
boundary  between  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and 
the  payment  to  the  former  for  surrendering  the  lat 
ter  the  sum  of  ten  million  dollars  from  the  na 
tional  treasury;  fifth,  the  enactment  of  a  more 
rigorous  law  for  the  recovery  of  fugitive  slaves; 
sixth,  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District 
of  Columbia. 

When  the  Omnibus  Bill  was  laid  before  Con 
gress,  the  debates  began  anew,  and  seemed  likely 
to  be  interminable.  While  the  discussion  was  at 
its  height  and  the  issue  still  undecided,  President 
Taylor  fell  sick,  and  died  on 
the  9th  of  July,  1850.  In 
accordance  with  the  pro 
visions  of  the  constitution, 
Mr.  Fillmore  at  once  took 
the  oath  of  office  and  en 
tered  upon  the  duties  of  the 
presidency.  A  new  cabinet 
was  formed,  with  Daniel 
Webster  at  the  head  as  sec 
retary  of  state.  Notwith 
standing  the  death  of  the  chief  magistrate,  the 
government  moved  on  without  disturbance. 

The  compromise  proposed  by  Mr.  Clay  and  sus 
tained  by  his  eloquence  was  at  length  approved  by 
Congress.  On  the  i8th  of  September  the  last 


Millard    Fillmore 
President  1850-53 


Administrations  of  Taylor  and  Fillmore     619 

clause  was  adopted,  and  the  whole  received  the 
immediate  sanction  of  the  President.  The  ex 
citement  in  the  country  rapidly  abated,  and  the 
distracting  controversy  seemed  at  an  end.  Such 
was  the  last,  and  perhaps  the  greatest,  of  those 
pacific  measures  originated  and  carried  through 
Congress  by  the  genius  of  Henry  Clay.  He 
shortly  afterward  bade  adieu  to  the  Senate,  and 
sought  at  his  beloved  Ashland  a  brief  rest  from 
the  arduous  cares  of  public  life. 

The  year  1850  was  marked  by  a  lawless  attempt 
on  the  part  of  some  American  adventurers  to  gain 
possession  of  Cuba.  It  was  thought  that  the  people 
of  that  island  were  anxious  to  throw  off  the  Span 
ish  yoke  and  to  annex  themselves  to  the  United 
States.  In  order  to  encourage  such  a  movement, 
General  Lopez  organized  an  expedition  in  the 
South,  and  on  the  I9th  of  May,  1850,  effected 
a  landing  at  Cardenas,  a  port  of  Cuba.  But  there 
was  no  uprising  in  his  favor;  neither  Cubans  nor 
Spanish  soldiers  joined  his  standard,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  seek  safety  by  returning  to  Florida. 
Renewing  the  attempt  in  the  following  year,  he 
and  his  band  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  men  were 
attacked,  defeated,  and  captured  by  an  overwhelm 
ing  force  of  Spaniards.  Lopez  and  the  ringleaders 
were  taken  to  Havana,  tried,  condemned,  and 
executed. 

In  1852  a  serious  trouble  arose  with  England. 
By  the  terms  of  former  treaties  the  coast  fisheries 
of  Newfoundland  belonged  exclusively  to  Great 
Britain.  But  outside  of  a  line  drawn  three  miles 


620  History  of  the  United  States 

from  the  shore  American  fishermen  enjoyed  equal 
rights  and  privileges.  Now  the  dispute  arose  as 
to  whether  the  line  should  be  drawn  from  one 
headland  to  another  so  as  to  give  all  the  bays 
and  inlets  to  England,  or  whether  it  should  be 
made  to  conform  to  the  irregularities  of  the  coast. 
Under  the  latter  construction  American  fishing 
vessels  would  have  equal  claims  in  the  bays  and 
harbors;  but  this  privilege  was  denied  by  Great 
Britain,  and  the  quarrel  rose  to  such  a  height  that 
both  nations  sent  men-of-war  to  the  contested 
waters.  But  reason  triumphed  over  passion,  and 
in  1854  the  difficulty  was  happily  settled  by  negoti 
ation;  the  right  to  take  fish  in  any  of  the  bays 
of  the  British  possessions  was  conceded  to  Ameri 
can  fishermen. 

During  the  summer  of  1852  the  celebrated  Hun 
garian  patriot  Louis  Kossuth  made  the  tour  of  the 
United  States.  Austria  and  Russia  had  united 
against  his  native  land  and  overthrown  her  liber 
ties.  He  came  to  plead  the  cause  of  Hungary 
before  the  American  people,  and  to  obtain  such  aid 
as  might  be  furnished  to  his  oppressed  countrymen. 
Everywhere  he  was  received  with  expressions  of 
sympathy  and  goodwill.  His  mission  was  only 
partially  successful,  as  the  long  established  policy 
of  the  United  States  forbade  the  government  to 
interfere  on  behalf  of  the  Hungarian  patriots. 

About  this  time  the  attention  of  the  Ameri 
can  people  was  directed  in  a  special  manner  to 
explorations  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  1845  Sir 
John  Franklin,  one  of  the  bravest  of  English  sea- 


Administrations  of  Taylor  and  Fillmore     621 

men,  went  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  the  extreme 
North.  He  believed  in  the  possibility  of  passing 
through  an  open  polar  sea  into  the  Pacific.  Years 
went  by,  and  no  tidings  came  from  the  daring 
sailor.  It  was  only  known  that  he  had  passed  the 
country  of  the  Esquimaux.  Other  expeditions  were 
dispatched  in  search,  but  returned  without  success. 
Henry  Grinnell,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  New  York, 
fitted  out  several  vessels  at  his  own  expense,  put 
them  under  command  of  Lieutenant  De  Haven, 
and  sent  them  to  the  North;  but  in  vain.  The 
government  came  to  Mr.  Grinnell's  aid.  In  1853 
a  new  Arctic  squadron  was  equipped,  the  com 
mand  of  which  was  given  to  Dr.  Elisha  Kent  Kane ; 
but  the  expedition,  though  rich  in  scientific  results, 
returned  without  the  discovery  of  Franklin. 

During  the  administrations  of  Taylor  and  Fill- 
more  the  country  was  called  to  mourn  the  loss  of 
many  distinguished  men.  On  the  3ist  of  March, 
1850,  Senator  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina, 
passed  away.  His  death  was  much  lamented,  es 
pecially  in  his  own  State,  to  whose  interests  he  had 
devoted  the  energies  of  his  life.  His  earnestness 
and  zeal  and  powers  of  debate  have  placed  him 
in  the  front  rank  of  American  statesmen.  At  the 
age  of  sixty-eight  he  fell  from  his  place  like  a 
scarred  oak  of  the  forest,  never  to  rise  again. 
Then  followed  the  death  of  the  President;  and 
then,  on  the  28th  of  June,  1852,  Henry  Clay, 
having  fought  his  last  battle,  sank  to  rest.  On 
the  24th  of  the  following  October  the  illustrious 
Daniel  Webster  died  at  his  home  at  Marshfield, 


622  History  of  the  United  States 

Massachusetts.  The  place  of  secretary  of  state, 
made  vacant  by  his  death,  was  conferred  on  Ed 
ward  Everett. 

As  Fillmore's  administration  drew  to  a  close  the 
political  parties  again  marshaled  their  forces. 
Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hampshire,  appeared  as 
the  candidate  of  the  Democratic  party,  and  General 
Winfield  Scott  as  the  choice  of  the  Whigs.  The 
great  question  before  the  country  was  the  Com 
promise  Act  of  1850.  But  the  parties,  instead 
of  being  divided,  were  for  once  agreed  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  that  measure.  Both  the  Whig  and 
Democratic  platforms  stoutly  reaffirmed  the  justice 
of  the  Omnibus  Bill,  by  which  the  dissensions  of 
the  country  had  been  quieted.  A  third  party  arose, 
however,  whose  members,  both  Whigs  and  Demo 
crats,  doubted  the  wisdom  of  the  compromise  of 
1850,  and  declared  that  all  the  Territories  of  the 
United  States  ought  to  be  free.  John  P.  Hale, 
of  New  Hampshire,  was  put  forward  as  the  can 
didate  of  this  Free  Soil  party.  Mr.  Pierce  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority,  and  William  R.  King, 
of  Alabama,  was  chosen  Vice-President. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

PIERCE'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1853-1857 

THE  new  chief  magistrate  was  a  native  of  New 
Hampshire,   a   graduate   of   Bowdoin   College,    a 


Pierce's  Administration  623 

lawyer,  a  politician,  a  general  in  the  Mexican  War, 
a  statesman  of  considerable  abilities.  Mr.  King, 
the  Vice-President,  had  for  a  long  time  represented 
Alabama  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  On 
account  of  failing  health  he  was 
sojourning  in  the  island  of  Cuba 
at  the  time  of  the  inauguration, 
and  there  he  received  the  oath  of 
office.  Growing  still  more  feeble, 
he  returned  to  his  own  State, 
where  he  died  on  the  i8th  of 
April,  1853.  As  secretary  of 
state  under  the  new  administra 
tion  William  L.  Marcy,  of  New 

xr      ,  ,  '  Franklin  Pierce 

York,  was  chosen.  President  ^^ 

In  the  summer  of  1853  the  first 
corps  of  engineers  was  sent  out  by  the  government 
to  explore  the  route  for  a  Pacific  railroad.  The  en 
terprise  was  at  first  regarded  as  visionary,  then  be 
lieved  in  as  possible,  and  finally  undertaken  and 
accomplished.  In  the  same  year  that  marked  the 
beginning  of  the  project  the  disputed  boundary 
between  New  Mexico  and  Chihuahua  was  satisfac 
torily  settled.  The  maps  on  which  the  former 
treaties  with  Mexico  had  been  based  were  found  to 
be  erroneous.  Santa  Anna,  who  had  again  become 
president  of  the  Mexican  republic,  attempted  to 
take  advantage  of  the  error,  and  sent  an  army 
to  occupy  the  territory  between  the  true  and  the 
false  boundary.  This  action  was  resisted  by  the 
authorities  of  New  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
and  a  second  Mexican  war  seemed  imminent.  The 


624  History  of  the  United  States 

difficulty  was  adjusted,  however,  by  the  purchase 
of  the  doubtful  claim  of  Mexico.  This  transac 
tion,  known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  led  to  the 
erection  of  the  new  Territory  of  Arizona. 

The  first  year  of  Pierce's  administration  was 
signalized  by  the  opening  of  intercourse  between 
the  United  States  and  Japan.  Hitherto  the  Japa 
nese  ports  had  been  closed  against  the  vessels  of 
Christian  nations.  In  order  to  remove  this  foolish 
and  injurious  restriction  Commodore  Perry,  a  son 
of  Oliver  H.  Perry  of  the  war  of  1812,  sailed  with 
his  squadron  into  the  Bay  of  Yeddo.  When  warned 
to  depart,  he  explained  to  the  Japanese  officers  the 
sincere  desire  of  the  United  States  to  enter  into  a 
commercial  treaty  with  the  emperor.  After  much 
delay  and  hesitancy  consent  was  obtained  to  hold 
an  interview  with  that  august  personage.  Accord 
ingly,  on  the  1 4th  of  July,  the  commodore  with 
his  officers  obtained  an  audience  with  the  dusky 
monarch  of  the  East,  and  presented  a  letter  from 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  Still  the  gov 
ernment  of  Japan  was  wary  of  accepting  the  propo 
sition,  and  it  was  not  until  the  spring  of  1854 
that  a  treaty  could  be  concluded.  The  privileges 
of  commerce  were  thus  conceded  to  American  mer 
chant  vessels,  and  two  ports  of  entry  were  des 
ignated  for  their  use. 

On  the  very  day  of  Commodore  Perry's  intro 
duction  to  the  emperor  of  Japan  the  Crystal  Palace 
was  opened  in  the  city  of  New  York  for  the  second 
World's  Fair.  The  palace  itself  was  a  marvel  in 
architecture,  being  built  exclusively  of  iron  and 


Pierce's  Administration 


625 


glass.  Thousands  of  specimens  of  the  arts  and 
manufactures  of  all  civilized  nations  were  put  on 
exhibition  within  the  spacious  building.  The  en 
terprise  and  inventive  genius  of  the  whole  country 
were  quickened  into  a  new  life  by  the  beautiful 
and  instructive  display.  International  exhibitions 
are  among  the  happiest  fruits  of  an  enlightened  age. 
And  now  the  great  domain  lying  west  of  Minne 
sota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri  was  to  be  organized  into 
territorial  governments.  Already  into  these  vast 
regions  the  tide  of  immigration  was  pouring,  and 
it  became  necessary  to  provide  for  the  future.  In 
January  of  1854  Senator  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of 
Illinois,  brought  before  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  a  proposition  to  organize  the  Territories  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  In  the  bill  reported  for 
this  purpose  a  clause  was 
inserted  providing  that 
the  people  of  the  two  ter 
ritories,  in  forming  their 
constitutions,  should  de 
cide  for  them, selves 
whether  the  new  States 
should  be  free  or  slave- 
holding.  This  was  a  vir 
tual  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  for  both 
the  new  territories  lay  north  of  the  parallel  of 
thirty-six  degrees  and  thirty  minutes.  Thus  by 
a  single  stroke  the  old  settlement  of  the  slavery 
question  was  to  be  undone.  From  January  un 
til  May  Mr.  Douglas's  report,  known  as  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  was  debated  in  Congress. 


Early  Stage  Coach 


626  History  of  the  United  States 

All  the  bitter  sectional  antagonisms  of  the  past 
were  aroused  in  full  force.  The  bill  was  violently 
opposed  by  a  majority  of  the  representatives  from 
the  East  and  North;  but  the  minority,  uniting  with 
the  congressmen  of  the  South,  enabled  Douglas 
to  carry  his  measure  through  Congress,  and  in  May 
of  1854  the  bill  received  the  sanction  of  the  Presi 
dent. 

Kansas  itself  now  became  a  battlefield  for  the 
contending  parties.  Whether  the  new  State  should 
admit  slavery  now  depended  upon  the  vote  of  the 
people.  Wherefore  both  factions  made  a  rush 
for  the  Territory  to  secure  a  majority.  Kansas 
was  soon  filled  with  an  agitated  mass  of  people, 
thousands  of  whom  had  been  sent  thither  to  vote. 
An  election  held  in  November  of  1854  resulted 
in  the  choice  of  a  pro-slavery  delegate  to  Congress, 
and  in  the  general  territorial  election  of  the  fol 
lowing  year  the  same  party  was  triumphant.  The 
State  Legislature  thus  chosen  assembled  at  Le- 
compton,  organized  the  government,  and  framed 
a  constitution  permitting  slavery.  The  Free  Soil 
party,  declaring  the  general  election  to  have  been 
illegal  on  account  of  fraudulent  voting,  assembled 
in  convention  at  Topeka,  framed  a  constitution 
excluding  slavery,  and  organized  a  rival  govern 
ment.  Civil  war  broke  out  between  the  factions. 
From  the  autumn  of  1855  until  the  following  sum 
mer  the  Territory  was  a  scene  of  constant  turmoil 
and  violence.  On  the  3d  of  September  the  Presi 
dent  apponted  John  W.  Geary,  of  Pennsylvania, 
military  governor  of  Kansas,  with  full  powers  to 


Pierce's  Administration  627 

restore  order  and  punish  lawlessness.  On  his  ar 
rival  the  hostile  parties  were  quieted  and  peace 
restored.  But  the  agitation  in  the  Territory  had 
already  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and 
became  the  issue  on  which  the  people  divided  in 
the  presidential  election  of  1856. 

The  parties  made  ready  for  the  contest.  James 
Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  was  nominated  as  the 
Democratic  candidate.  By  planting  himself  on 
a  platform  of  principles  in  which  the  doctrines  of 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  were  distinctly  re-af 
firmed,  he  was  able  to  secure  a  heavy  vote  both 
North  and  South.  For  many  Northern  Demo 
crats,  though  opposed  to  slavery,  held  firmly  to 
the  opinion  that  the  people  of  every  territory 
ought  to  have  the  right  to  decide  the  question  for 
themselves.  As  the  candidate  of  the  newly  founded 
Republican  party,  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California, 
was  brought  forward.  The  exclusion  of  slavery 
from  all  the  Territories  of  the  United  States  by 
congressional  action  was  the  distinctive  principle 
of  the  platform.  Meanwhile,  an  American  or 
Know-Nothing  party  had  arisen  in  the  country,  the 
leaders  of  which,  anxious  to  ignore  the  slavery 
question  and  to  restrict  foreign  influences  in  the 
nation,  nominated  Millard  Fillmore  for  the  presi 
dency.  But  the  slavery  agitation  could  not  be  put 
aside ;  on  that  issue  the  people  were  really  divided. 
A  large  majority  decided  in  favor  of  Mr.  Bu 
chanan  for  the  presidency,  while  the  choice  for 
the  vice-presidency  fell  on  John  C.  Breckinridge, 
of  Kentucky. 


628  History  of  the  United  States 

CHAPTER   XV 
BUCHANAN'S  ADMINISTRATION,  1857-1861 

JAMES  BUCHANAN  was  a  native  of  Pennsylvania, 
born  on  the  I3th  of  April,  1791,  educated  for 
the  profession  of  law.  In  1831  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Russia,  was  afterward  elected  to  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  and  from  that  position 
was  called  to  the  office  of  secretary  of  state  under 
President  Polk.  In  1853  he  received  the  appoint 
ment  of  minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  resided  at 
London  until  his  nomination  for  the  presidency. 
As  secretary  of  state  in  the  new  cabinet  General 
Lewis  Cass,  of  Michigan,  was  chosen. 

In  the  first  year  of  Buchanan's  administration 
there  was  a  Mormon  rebellion  in  Utah.  The  dif 
ficulty  arose  from  an  attempt  to  extend  the  judicial 
system  of  the  United  States  over  the  territory. 
Thus  far  Brigham  Young,  the  Mormon  governor, 
had  had  his  own  way  of  administering  justice.  The 
community  of  Mormons  was  organized  on  a  plan 
very  different  from  that  existing  in  other  Territo 
ries,  and  many  usages  had  grown  up  in  Utah  which 
were  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  the  country.  When, 
therefore,  in  1856,  a  Federal  judge  was  sent  to 
preside  in  the  Territory,  he  was  resisted  and  driven 
from  the  seat  of  justice.  To  quell  this  insurrection 
an  army  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  men  was 
sent  to  Utah  in  the  fall  of  1857.  The  Mormons 
prepared  for  resistance  and  cut  off  the  supply 


Buchanan's  Administration 


629 


trains  of  the  army.  Meanwhile,  however,  Thomas 
L.  Kane  arrived  with  conciliatory  letters  from  the 
President.  Overtures  for  peace  on  the  basis  of 
a  Federal  pardon  were  accepted  by  the  Mormons, 
and  order  was  finally  restored.  In  1858  the  army 
marched  to  Salt  Lake,  was 
then  quartered  at  Camp 
Floyd,  and  in  May  of  1860 
was  withdrawn  from  the 
Territory. 

Early  in  1858  an  Ameri 
can  vessel,  while  innocently 
exploring  the  Paraguay 
River,  in  South  America, 
was  fired  on  by  a  jealous 
garrison.  When  reparation 
for  the  insult  was  demanded, 
none  was  given,  and  the 
government  of  the  United  States  was  obliged  to 
send  out  a  fleet  to  obtain  satisfaction.  A  commis 
sioner  was  sent  with  the  squadron  who  was  em 
powered  to  offer  liberal  terms  of  settlement  for 
the  injury.  The  authorities  of  Paraguay  quailed 
before  the  American  flag,  and  suitable  apologies 
were  made  for  the  wrong  which  had  been  com 
mitted. 

The  5th  of  August,  1858,  was  a  memorable  day 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  On  that  day  was 
completed  the  laying  of  the  first  telegraphic  cable 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  successful  accom 
plishment  of  this  great  work  was  due  in  a  large 
measure  to  the  energy  and  genius  of  Cyrus  W. 


James   Buchanan 
President    1857-61 


630  History  of  the  United  States 

Field,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  New  York.  The 
cable,  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty  miles 
in  length,  was  stretched  from  Trinity  Bay,  New 
foundland,  to  Valentia  Bay,  Ireland.  Telegraphic 
communication  was  thus  established  between  the 
Old  World  and  the  New,  and  the  fraternal  greet 
ings  of  peaceful  nations  were  for  the  first  time 
transmitted  through  the  depths  of  the  sea.  The 
great  problem  of  quick  communication  between 


Laying  the  Atlantic  Cable 

two  nations  separated  by  a  vast  expanse  of  water 
was  indeed  solved;  but  this  particular  cable  did 
little  more  than  solve  the  problem  and  point  out 
the  possibilities  of  the  future.  After  but  three 
weeks'  service  it  parted  somewhere  in  mid-ocean 
and  eight  years  passed  before  another  one  was 
successfully  laid. 

In  1858  Minnesota  was  added  to  the  Union. 
The  area  of  the  new  State  was  a  little  more  than 
eighty-one  thousand  square  miles,  and  its  popula 
tion  at  the  date  of  admission  a  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  souls.  In  the  next  year  Oregon,  the 


Buchanan's  Administration  631 

thirty-third  State,  was  admitted,  with  a  population 
of  forty-eight  thousand,  and  an  area  of  eighty  thou 
sand  square  miles.  On  the  4th  of  March  preced 
ing,  General  Sam  Houston,  of  Texas,  bade  adieu 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  and  retired  to 
private  life.  His  career  had  been  marked  by  the 
strangest  vicissitudes.  He  was  a  Virginian  by 
birth,  but  his  youth  was  hardened  among  the 
mountains  of  Tennessee.  He  gained  a  military 
fame  in  the  Seminole  War,  then  rose  to  political 
distinction,  and  was  elected  governor  of  his 
adopted  State.  Overshadowed  with  a  domestic 
calamity,  he  suddenly  resigned  his  office,  left  his 
home,  and  exiled  himself  among  the  Cherokees, 
by  whom  he  was  made  a  chief.  Afterward  he 
went  to  Texas,  joined  the  patriots,  and  became  a 
leading  spirit  in  the  struggle  for  independence. 
It  was  he  who  commanded  in  the  decisive  battle 
of  San  Jacinto;  he  who  became  first  president  of 
Texas,  and  also  her  first  representative  in  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States.  Through  all  the 
misfortunes,  dangers,  and  trials  of  his  life  his 
character  stood  like  adamant. 

The  slavery  question  continued  to  vex  the  nation. 
In  1857  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
after  hearing  the  cause  of  Dred  Scott,  formerly 
a  slave,  rendered  a  decision  that  negroes  are  not, 
and  cannot  become,  citizens. 

Scott  was  the  slave  of  one  Dr.  Emerson,  an 
army  surgeon,  who  was  stationed  for  a  time  in 
Illinois,  and  later  in  the  territory  that  became  Min 
nesota,  taking  his  slave  with  him.  Later  when  he 


632  History  of  the  United  States 

returned  to  Missouri,  Scott  sued  for  his  freedom 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  been  illegally  held  in 
slavery  on  free  soil.  He  won  his  case  in  the  Mis 
souri  courts,  but  lost  in  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court.  This  decision  was  violently  assailed  by  the 
opponents  of  slavery;  and  in  several  of  the  free 
States  personal  liberty  bills  were  passed,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  defeat  the  execution  of  the  Fugi 
tive  Slave  law. 

In  the  fall  of  1859  the  excitement  was  still  fur 
ther  increased  by  the  mad  attempt  of  John  Brown, 
of  Kansas,  to  incite  a  general  insurrection  among 
the  slaves.  With  a  party  of  twenty-one  men  as 
daring  as  himself,  he  made  a  sudden  descent  on 
the  United  States  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  cap 
tured  the  place,  and  held  his  ground  for  nearly 
two  days.  The  national  troops  and  the  militia 
of  Virginia  were  called  out  in  order  to  suppress 
the  revolt.  Thirteen  of  Brown's  men  were  killed, 
two  made  their  escape,  and  the  rest  were  captured. 
The  leader  and  his  six  companions  were  given  over 
to  the  authorities  of  Virginia,  tried,  condemned, 
and  hanged.  In  Kansas  the  old  controversy  still 
continued,  but  the  Free  Soil  party  gained  ground 
so  rapidly  as  to  make  it  certain  that  slavery  would 
be  interdicted  from  the  State.  All  these  facts  and 
events  tended  to  widen  the  breach  between  the 
people  of  the  North  and  the  South.  Such  was  the 
alarming  condition  of  affairs  when  the  time  ar 
rived  for  holding  the  nineteenth  presidential  elec 
tion. 

The    canvass   was   one   of    intense   excitement. 


Buchanan's  Administration  633 

Four  candidates  were  presented.  The  choice  of 
the  Republican  party  was  Abraham  Lincoln,  of 
Illinois.  The  platform  of  principles  adopted  by 
this  party  again  declared  opposition  to  the  exten 
sion  of  slavery  to  be  the  vital  issue.  In  the  month 
of  April  the  Democratic  convention  assembled  at 
Charleston.  The  delegates  were  divided  on  the 
question  of  slavery,  and  after  much  debating  the 
party  was  disrupted.  The  Southern  delegates,  un 
able  to  obtain  a  distinct  expression  of  their  views 
in  the  platform  of  principles,  and  seeing  that  the 
Northern  wing  was  determined  to  nominate  Mr. 
Douglas — the  great  defender  of  popular  sov 
ereignty — withdrew  from  the  convention.  The 
rest  adjourned  to  Baltimore,  where,  on  the  i8th 
of  June,  they  chose  Douglas  as  their  standard 
bearer.  The  delegates  from  the  South  adjourned 
to  Richmond,  and  then  to  Baltimore,  where,  on 
the  28th  of  June,  John  C.  Breckinridge  was  nom 
inated.  The  American  party — now  known  as  Con 
stitutional  Unionists — chose  John  Bell,  of  Ten 
nessee,  as  their  candidate.  The  contest  resulted  in 
the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln.  He  received  almost 
the  entire  electoral  vote  of  the  North,  while  the 
support  of  the  Southern  States  was,  for  the  most 
part,  given  to  Breckinridge.  Mr.  Douglas  re 
ceived  a  large  popular  but  small  electoral  vote,  his 
supporters  being  scattered  throughout  all  the 
States. 

The  result  of  the  election  had  been  anticipated. 
The  leaders  of  the  South  had  openly  declared  that 
the  choice  of  Lincoln  would  be  regarded  as  a  just 


634  History  of  the  United  States 

cause  for  the  dissolution  of  the  Union.  The  Re 
publicans  of  the  populous  North  crowded  to  the 
polls,  and  their  favorite  was  chosen.  As  to  the 
government,  it  was  under  the  control  of  the  Doug 
las  Democracy;  but  a  majority  of  the  cabinet  and 
a  large  number  of  senators  and  representatives  in 
Congress  were  supporters  of  Mr.  Breckinridge 
and  the  advocates  of  disunion  as  a  justifiable  meas 
ure.  It  was  now  evident  that  with  the  incoming 
of  the  new  administration  all  the  departments  of 
the  government  would  pass  under  the  control  of 
the  Republican  party.  The  times  were  full  of  pas 
sion,  animosity,  and  rashness.  It  was  seen  that 
disunion  was  now  possible,  and  that  the  possibility 
would  shortly  be  removed.  The  attitude  of  the 
President  favored  the  measure.  He  was  not  him 
self  a  disunionist.  He  denied  the  right  of  a  State 
to  secede;  but  at  the  same  time  he  declared  himself 
not  armed  with  the  constitutional  power  necessary 
to  prevent  secession  by  force.  The  interval,  there 
fore,  between  the  presidential  election  in  Novem 
ber  of  1860  and  the  inauguration  of  the  follow 
ing  spring  was  seized  by  the  leaders  of  the  South 
as  the  opportune  moment  for  dissolving  the  Union. 
The  actual  work  of  secession  began  in  South 
Carolina.  On  the  I7th  of  December,  1860,  a 
convention  assembled  at  Charleston,  and  after  three 
days  of  deliberation  passed  a  resolution  that  the 
union  hitherto  existing  between  South  Carolina  and 
the  other  States,  under  the  name  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  was  dissolved.  It  was  a  step 
of  fearful  importance.  The  action  was  con- 


Buchanan's  Administration  635 

tagious.  The  sentiment  of  disunion  spread 
with  great  rapidity.  The  cotton-growing  States 
were  almost  unanimous  in  support  of  the  measure. 
By  the  ist  of  February,  1861,  six  other  States — 
Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas — -had  passed  ordinances  of  secession 
and  withdrawn  from  the  Union.  Nearly  all  of 
the  senators  and  representatives  of  those  States, 
following  the  action  of  their  constituents,  resigned 
their  seats  in  Congress  and  gave  themselves  to  the 
disunion  cause. 

In  the  secession  conventions  there  was  but  little 
opposition  to  the  movement.  In  some  instances 
a  considerable  minority  vote  was  cast.  A  few  of 
the  speakers  boldly  denounced  disunion  as  bad  in 
principle  and  ruinous  in  its  results.  The  course  of 
Alexander  H.  Stephens,  afterward  Vice-President 
of  the  Confederate  States,  was  peculiar.  In  the 
convention  of  Georgia  he  undertook  the  task  of 
preventing  the  secession  of  his  State.  He  deliv 
ered  a  long  and  powerful  oration  in  which  he  de 
fended  the  theory  of  secession,  advocated  the  doc 
trine  of  State  sovereignty,  declared  his  intention 
of  abiding  by  the  decision  of  the  convention,  but 
at  the  same  time  spoke  against  secession,  on  the 
ground  that  the  measure  mas  impolitic,  unwise,  dis 
astrous.  Not  a  few  prominent  men  at  the  South 
held  similar  views;  but  the  opposite  opinion  pre 
vailed,  and  secession  was  accomplished. 

On  the  4th  of  February,  1861,  delegates  from 
six  of  the  seceded  States  assembled  at  Montgom 
ery,  Alabama,  and  formed  a  new  government, 


636 


History  of  the  United  States 


under  the  name  of  the  Confederate  States  of  Amer 
ica.  On  the  8th  of  the  month  the  government  was 
organized  by  the  election  of  Jefferson  Davis,  of 
Mississippi,  as  provisional  President,  and  Alexan 
der  H.  Stephens  as  Vice- 
President.  On  the  same 
day  of  the  meeting  of  the 
Confederate  Congress,  at 
Montgomery,  a  peace 
conference  assembled  at 
Washington.  Delegates 
from  twenty-one  States 
were  present ;  certain 
amendments  to  the  Con 
stitution  were  proposed 
and  laid  before  Congress 
for  adoption,  but  that 
body  gave  little  heed  to 
the  measures  suggested, 
and  the  conference  adjourned  without  practical 
results. 

The  country  seemed  on  the  verge  of  ruin.  The 
national  government  was  for  the  time  being  par 
alyzed.  The  army  was  stationed  in  detachments 
on  remote  frontiers.  The  fleet  was  scattered  in 
distant  seas.  The  President  was  distracted  with 
hesitancy  and  the  adverse  counsels  of  his  friends. 
With  the  exception  of  Forts  Sumter  and  Moultrie 
in  Charleston  Harbor,  Fort  Pickens  near  Pensa- 
cola,  and  Fortress  Monroe  in  the  Chesapeake,  all 
the  important  posts  in  the  seceded  States  had  been 
seized  by  the  Confederate  authorities,  even  before 


Jefferson   Davis 
President  of  the  Confederacy 


Lincoln's  Administration  637 

the  organization  of  their  government.  All  this 
while  the  local  warfare  in  Kansas  had  con 
tinued;  but  the  Free  State  party  had  at  last  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  the  early  admission  of  the 
new  commonwealth,  with  two  additional  Repub 
lican  senators,  was  foreseen.  Early  in  January  the 
President  made  a  feeble  attempt  to  re-enforce  and 
provision  the  garrison  of  Fort  Sumter.  The 
steamer  Star  of  the  West  was  sent  with  men  and 
supplies,  but  in  approaching  the  harbor  of  Charles 
ton  was  fired  on  by  a  Confederate  battery  and 
compelled  to  return.  Such  was  the  condition  of 
affairs  that  it  was  deemed  prudent  for  the  new 
President  to  approach  the  capital  without  recogni 
tion.  For  the  first  time  in  the  nation's  history  its 
chief  magistrate  slipped  into  Washington  by  night. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

LINCOLN'S  ADMINISTRATION  AND  THE  CIVIL  WAR, 
1861-1865 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  sixteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  a  native  of  Kentucky,  born  on 
the  1 2th  of  February,  1809.  At  the  age  of  seven 
he  was  taken  with  his  father's  family  to  Southern 
Indiana,  where  his  boyhood  was  passed  in  pov 
erty,  hardship,  and  toil.  On  reaching  his  majority 
he  left  the  farm  and  river  life,  moved  to  Illinois, 
and  some  years  later  became  a  student  of  law. 


638  History  of  the  United  States 

After  many  years  of  struggle  he  distinguished  him 
self  in  his  profession,  meantime  having  served  in 
the  legislature  of  his  adopted  State,  and  afterward 
in  Congress.  He  gained  his  first  national  reputa 
tion  in  1858,  when,  as  the  competitor  of  Stephen 

A.  Douglas,  he  can 
vassed  the  State  of 
Illinois  for  the 
United  States  Sen 
ate.  His  contest 
with  Mr.  Douglas 
proved  him  to  be 

Log  Cabin  in   Which  Lincoln          one   of  the   foremost 
Was   Born  ,     ,  f       , 

debaters    of    the 

country.  These  debates  served  to  crystallize  the  sen 
timent  regarding  the  extension  of  slavery.  Lincoln 
proposed  to  Douglas  a  trying  question  which  either 
way  he  might  answer  would  offend  either  the  North 
or  the  South.  Douglas  answered  it  in  a  way  to 
please  the  North  and  thus  won  the  re-election  to  the 
Senate,  but  it  lost  him  the  Presidency  two  years 
later,  when  the  Democratic  party  was  hopelessly 
divided  and  Lincoln  was  elected.  The  position  to 
which  he  was  now  called  was  one  of  fearful  respon 
sibility  and  trial. 

The  new  cabinet  was  organized  with  William 
H.  Seward,  of  New  York,  as  secretary  of  state. 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  of  Ohio,  was  chosen  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  and  Simon  Cameron,  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  secretary  of  war;  but  he,  in  the  following 
January,  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Edwin  M. 
Stanton,  of  Ohio.  The  secretaryship  of  the  navy 


Lincoln's  Administration  639 

was  conferred  on  Gideon  Welles,  of  Connecticut. 
In  his  inaugural  address  and  first  official  papers 
the  President  indicated  the  policy  of  the  new  ad 
ministration  by  declaring  his  purpose  to  repossess 


Abraham  Lincoln 
President   1861-65 

(From  the  Most  Striking   and  Lifelike 
Photograph  Ever  Made  of  Him) 

the  forts,  arsenals,  and  public  property  which  had 
been  seized  by  the  Confederate  authorities.  He 
declared  that  he  had  no  purpose  to  destroy  slavery 
where  it  already  existed.  But  the  question  had 
now  assumed  larger  proportions.  Some  of  the 


640  History  of  the  United  States 

States  were  in  revolt  against  the  United  States 
Government;  and  Mr.  Lincoln  declared  that  as 
he  should  have  a  vow  registered  in  heaven  to  pre 
serve  and  protect  the  Union,  he  would  execute  the 
laws  in  all  the  States.  His  meaning  was  clear;  he 
would  preserve  the  Union.  It  was  with  this  pur 
pose  that  the  first  military  preparations  were  made. 
In  the  meantime,  on  the  I2th  of  March,  an  effort 
was  made  by  commissioners  of  the  seceded  States 
to  obtain  from  the  national  government  a  recog 
nition  of  their  independence;  but  the  negotiations 
were  unsuccessful.  Then  followed  a  second  at 
tempt  on  the  part  of  the  government  to  re-enforce 
the  garrison  of  Fort  Sumter;  and  with  that  came 
the  beginning  of  actual  hostilities. 

The  defenses  of  Charleston  Harbor  were  held 
by  Major  Robert  Anderson.  His  entire  force,  in 
cluding  non-combatants,  amounted  to  128  men. 
Owing  to  the  weakness  of  his  garrison,  he  deemed 
it  prudent  to  evacuate  Fort  Moultrie  and  retire  to 
Sumter.  Meanwhile,  Confederate  volunteers  had 
flocked  to  the  city,  and  powerful  batteries  had  been 
built  about  the  harbor.  When  it  became  known 
that  the  Federal  government  would  re-enforce  the 
forts,  the  authorities  of  the  Confederate  States  de 
termined  to  anticipate  the  movement  by  compelling 
Anderson  to  surrender.  Accordingly,  on  the  nth 
of  April,  General  P.  T.  Beauregard,  commandant 
of  Charleston,  sent  a  flag  to  Fort  Sumter,  de 
manding  an  evacuation.  Major  Anderson  replied 
that  he  should  hold  the  fortress  and  defend  his 
flag.  On  the  following  morning,  at  half-past  four 


Lincoln's  Administration 


641 


o'clock,  the  first  gun  was  fired  from  a  Confederate 
battery.  A  terrific  bombardment  of  thirty-four 
hours'  duration  followed;  the  fort  was  reduced  to 
ruins,  set  on  fire,  and  obliged  to  capitulate.  The 
honors  of  war  were  granted 
to  Anderson  and  his  men, 
who  had  made  a  brave  and 
obstinate  resistance.  Al 
though  the  cannonade  had 
been  long  continued  and 
severe,  no  lives  were  lost 
either  in  the  fort  or  on  the 
shore.  Thus  the  defenses 
of  Charleston  Harbor  were 
secured  by  the  Confederates. 
The  news  of  this  start 
ling  event  went  through  the 
country  like  a  flame  of  fire. 
Public  opinion  in  both  the 
North  and  the  South  was 
rapidly  consolidated.  Three 
days  after  the  fall  of  Sum- 
ter  President  Lincoln  issued 


The   Militia  Man    of    '6l 
The  New  York  Ninth  Re 
giment's     Memorial     in 
Central  Park,  New  York 
City 


a  call  for  seventy-five  thousand  volunteers  to  serve 
three  months  in  the  overthrow  of  the  secession 
movement.  There  was  a  ready  response  from 
every  part  of  the  North.  Party  divisions  were  for 
gotten.  Mr.  Buchanan  came  out  strongly  for  the 
Union.  Mr.  Douglas,  the  late  defeated  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  vigorously  defended  Mr. Lin 
coln's  inaugural  address.  Later  he  called  upon 
the  President,  and  the  announcement  of  this  inter- 


642  History  of  the  United  States 

view  was  a  call  to  the  million  men  in  the  North 
who  looked  upon  him  as  their  leader.  Two  days 
later  Virginia  seceded  from  the  Union.  On  the 
6th  of  May  Arkansas  followed  the  example, 
and  then  North  Carolina  on  the  2Oth  of  the 
same  month.  In  Tennessee — especially  in  East 
Tennessee — there  was  a  powerful  opposition  to 
disunion,  and  it  was  not  until  the  8th  of  June 
that  a  secession  ordinance  could  be  passed.  In 
Missouri,  as  will  presently  be  seen,  the  movement 
resulted  in  civil  war,  while  in  Kentucky  the  author 
ities  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality.  The 
people  of  Maryland  were  divided  into  hostile  par 
ties,  the  disunion  sentiment  being  largely  prev 
alent.  In  all  the  border  States  soldiers  were  fur 
nished  both  armies.  It  often  happened  that 
members  of  the  same  family  were  on  opposite 
sides. 

On  the  1 9th  of  April,  when  the  first  regiments 
of  Massachusetts  were  passing  through  Baltimore 
on  their  way  to  Washington,  they  were  fired  upon 
by  the  citizens,  and  four  men  killed.  This  was 
the  first  bloodshed  of  the  war.  On  the  day  before 
this  event  a  body  of  Confederate  soldiers  advanced 
against  the  armory  of  the  United  States  at  Har 
per's  Ferry.  The  officer  in  command  hastily  de 
stroyed  a  portion  of  the  vast  magazine  collected 
there,  and  then  escaped  into  Pennsylvania.  On  the 
2Oth  of  the  month  another  company  of  Virginians 
assailed  the  great  navy  yard  at  Norfolk.  The  of 
ficers  commanding  fired  the  buildings  and  ships, 
spiked  the  cannon,  and  withdrew  their  forces.  Most 


Lincoln's  Administration  643 

of  the  guns  and  many  of  the  vessels  were  after 
ward  recovered  by  the  Confederates,  the  property 
thus  captured  amounting  to  fully  ten  millions  of 
dollars.  So  rapidly  was  Virginia  filled  with  vol 
unteers  and  troops  from  the  South  that,  for  a 
while,  Washington  city  was  in  danger  of  being 
taken.  But  the  capital  was  soon  secured  from 
immediate  danger;  and  on  the  3d  of  May  the 
President  issued  another  call  for  soldiers.  This 
time  the  number  was  set  at  eighty-three  thousand, 
and  the  term  of  service  at  three  years  or  during 
the  war.  Lieutenant-General  Winfield  Scott  was 
made  commander-in-chief.  As  many  warships  as 
could  be  provided  were  sent  to  blockade  the  South 
ern  ports.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  most  effi 
cacious  method  of  warfare.  The  navy  was  small 
and  inadequate,  but  merchant  vessels  were  trans 
formed  into  ships  of  war,  and  it  was  not  a  great 
while  until  the  three  thousand  miles  of  coast  were 
effectively  blocked  and  the  Southern  markets  were 
closed  to  the  world.  On  every  side  were  heard 
the  notes  of  preparation.  In  the  seceded  States 
there  was  boundless  and  incessant  activity.  Al 
ready  the  Southern  Congress  had  adjourned  from 
Montgomery,  to  meet  on  the  2Oth  of  July  at  Rich 
mond,  which  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  Con 
federacy.  To  that  place  had  already  come  Mr. 
Davis  and  the  officers  of  his  cabinet,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  directing  the  affairs  of  the  government  and 
the  army.  So  stood  the  antagonistic  powers  in  the 
beginning  of  June,  1861.  It  was  now  evident  to 
all  men  (how  slow  they  had  been  to  believe  it!) 


644  History  of  the  United  States 

that  a  great  war,  perhaps  the  greatest  in  modern 
times,  was  impending  over  the  nation.  It  is  ap 
propriate  to  look  briefly  into  the  causes  of  the 
approaching  conflict. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

CAUSES   OF  THE   CIVIL   WAR 

THE  first  and  most  general  cause  of  the  civil  war 
in  the  United  States  was  the  different  construction 
put  upon  the  national  Constitution  by  the  people 
of  North  and  South.  A  difference  of  opinion  had 
always  existed  as  to  how  that  instrument  was  to 
be  understood.  The  question  at  issue  was  as  to 
the  relation  between  the  States  and  the  general 
government.  One  party  held  that  under  the  Con 
stitution  the  Union  of  the  States  is  indissoluble; 
that  the  sovereignty  of  the  nation  is  lodged  in  the 
central  government;  that  the  States  are  subordi 
nate;  that  the  acts  of  Congress,  until  they  are  re 
pealed  or  pronounced  unconstitutional  by  the  su 
preme  court,  are  binding  on  the  States;  that  the 
highest  allegiance  of  the  citizen  is  due  to  the  gen 
eral  government,  and  not  to  his  own  State;  and 
that  all  attempts  at  nullification  and  disunion  are 
in  their  nature  disloyal  and  treasonable.  The  other 
party  held  that  the  national  Constitution  is  a  com 
pact  between  sovereign  States ;  that  for  certain  rea 
sons  the  Union  may  be  dissolved;  that  the  sov- 


Causes  of  the  Civil  War  645 

ereignty  of  the  nation  is  lodged  in  the  individual 
States,  and  not  in  the  central  government;  that 
Congress  can  exercise  no  other  than  delegated 
powers ;  that  a  State,  feeling  aggrieved,  may  annul 
an  act  of  Congress;  that  the  highest  allegiance  of 
the  citizen  is  due  to  his  own  State,  and  afterward 
to  the  general  government,  and  that  acts  of  nulli 
fication  and  disunion  are  justifiable,  revolutionary, 
and  honorable. 

Here  was  an  issue  in  its  consequences  the  most 
fearful  that  ever  disturbed  a  nation.  It  struck 
right  into  the  vitals  of  the  government.  It  threat 
ened  with  each  renewal  of  the  agitation  to  undo 
the  whole  civil  structure  of  the  United  States.  For 
a  long  time  the  parties  who  disputed  about  the 
meaning  of  the  Constitution  were  scattered  in  vari 
ous  sections.  In  the  earlier  history  of  the  country 
the  doctrine  of  State  sovereignty  was  most  advo 
cated  in  New  England.  Other  States  in  the  North 
had  promulgated  the  same  dangerous  doctrine — 
Pennsylvania  in  1808  and  Ohio  in  1820.  With  the 
rise  of  the  tariff  question  the  position  of  parties 
changed.  Since  the  tariff — a  congressional  meas 
ure — favored  the  Eastern  States  at  the  expense  of 
the  South,  it  came  to  pass  naturally  that  the  people 
of  New  England  passed  over  to  the  advocacy  of 
national  sovereignty,  while  the  people  of  the  South 
took  up  the  doctrine  of  State  rights.  Thus  it  hap 
pened  that  as  early  as  1831  the  right  of  nullify 
ing  an  act  of  Congress  was  openly  advocated  in 
South  Carolina,  and  thus  also  it  happened  that  the 
belief  in  State  sovereignty  became  more  prevalent 


646  History  of  the  United  States 

in  the  South  than  in  the  North.  These  facts  tended 
powerfully  to  produce  sectional  parties  and  to  bring 
them  into  conflict. 

A  second  general  cause  of  the  civil  war  was 
the  different  system  of  labor  in  the  North  and  in 
the  South.  In  the  former  section  the  laborers  were 
freemen,  citizens,  voters;  in  the  latter,  bondmen, 
property,  slaves.  In  the  South  the  theory  was  that 
the  capital  of  a  country  should  own  the  labor; 
in  the  North  that  both  labor  and  capital  are  free. 
In  the  beginning  all  the  colonies  had  been  slave- 
holding.  In  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  the 
system  of  slave  labor  was  gradually  abolished, 
being  unprofitable.  In  the  five  great  States  formed 
out  of  the  Northwestern  Territory  slavery  was 
excluded  by  the  original  compact  under  which  that 
Territory  was  organized.  Thus  there  came  to  be 
a  dividing  line  drawn  through  the  Union  east  and 
west.  It  was  evident,  therefore,  that  whenever  the 
question  of  slavery  was  agitated  a  sectional  division 
would  arise  between  the  parties,  and  that  disunion 
and  war  would  be  threatened.  The  danger  arising 
from  this  source  was  increased  and  the  discord  be 
tween  the  sections  aggravated  by  several  subordi 
nate  causes. 

The  first  of  these  was  the  invention  of  the  Cot 
ton  Gin.  In  1793,  Eli  Whitney,  a  young  collegian 
of  Massachusetts,  went  to  Georgia,  and  resided 
with  the  family  of  Mrs.  Greene,  widow  of  General 
Greene,  of  the  Revolution.  While  there  his  atten 
tion  was  directed  to  the  tedious  and  difficult  process 
of  picking  cotton  by  hand — that  is,  separating  the 


Causes  of  the  Civil  War 


647 


seed  from  the  fiber.  So  slow  was  the  process  that 
the  production  of  upland  cotton  was  nearly  profit 
less.  The  industry  of  the  cotton  growing  States 
was  paralyzed  by  the  tediousness  of  preparing  the 
product  for  the  market. 
Mr.  Whitney  undertook 
to  remove  the  difficulty, 
and  succeeded  in  invent 
ing  a  gin  which  aston 
ished  the  beholder  by  the 
rapidity  and  excellence  of 
its  work.  From  being 
profitless,  cotton  became 
the  most  profitable  of  all 
the  staples.  The  industry 
of  the  South  was  revolu 
tionized.  Before  the  civil 
war  it  was  estimated  that 
Whitney's  gin  had  added 
a  thousand  millions  of  dollars  to  the  revenues  of 
the  Southern  States.  The  American  crop  had 
grown  to  be  seven-eighths  of  all  the  cotton  pro 
duced  in  the  world.  Just  in  proportion  to  the 
increased  profitableness  of  cotton,  slave  labor  be 
came  important,  slaves  valuable,  and  the  system  of 
slavery  a  fixed  and  deep-rooted  institution. 

From  this  time  onward  there  was  constant  dan 
ger  that  the  slavery  question  would  so  embitter 
the  politics  and  legislation  of  the  country  as  to 
bring  about  disunion.  The  danger  of  such  a  result 
was  fully  manifested  in  the  Missouri  Agitation  of 
1820-21.  Threats  of  dissolving  the  Union  were 


Eli  Whitney 


648 


History  of  the  United  States 


The  Cotton  Gin 


freely  made  in  both  the  North  and  the  South — 
in  the  North,  because  of  the  proposed  enlargement 
of  the  domain  of  slavery;  in  the  South,  because 

of  the  proposed  re 
jection  of  Missouri 
as  a  slave-holding 
State.  When  the 
Missouri  Compro 
mise  was  enacted,  it 
was  the  hope  of  Mr. 
Clay  and  his  fellow 
statesmen  to  save 
the  Union  by  re 
moving  forever  the 
slavery  question 

from  the  politics  of  the  country.  In  that  they  suc 
ceeded  for  a  while. 

Next  came  the  Nullification  Acts  of  South  Caro 
lina.  And  these,  too,  turned  upon  the  institution 
of  slavery  and  the  profitableness  of  cotton.  The 
Southern  States  had  become  cotton  producing;  the 
Eastern  States  had  given  themselves  to  manufac 
turing.  The  tariff  measures  favored  manufacturers 
at  the  expense  of  producers.  Mr.  Calhoun  and 
his  friends  proposed  to  remedy  the  evil  complained 
of  by  annulling  the  laws  of  Congress.  His  meas 
ures  failed;  but  another  compromise  was  found 
necessary  in  order  to  allay  the  animosities  which 
had  been  awakened. 

The  annexation  of  Texas,  with  the  consequent 
enlargement  of  the  domain  of  slavery,  led  to  a 
renewal  of  the  agitation.  Those  who  opposed  the 


Causes  of  the  Civil  War  649 

Mexican  War  did  so,  not  so  much  because  of  the 
injustice  of  the  conflict  as  because  of  the  fact  that 
thereby  slavery  would  be  extended.  Then,  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  came  another  enormous  acquisi 
tion  of  territory.  Whether  the  same  should  be 
made  into  free  or  slaveholding  States  was  the  ques 
tion  next  agitated.  This  controversy  led  to  the 
passage  of  the  Omnibus  Bill,  by  which  again  for 
a  brief  period  the  excitement  was  allayed. 

In  1854  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  was  passed. 
Thereby  the  Missouri  Compromise  was  repealed 
and  the  whole  question  opened  anew.  Meanwhile, 
the  character  and  the  civilization  of  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  people  had  become  quite  dif 
ferent.  In  population  and  wealth  the  North  had 
far  outgrown  the  South.  In  the  struggle  for  ter 
ritorial  dominion  the  North  had  gained  a  consid 
erable  advantage.  In  1860  the  division  of  the 
Democratic  party  made  certain  the  election  of  Mr. 
Lincoln  by  the  votes  of  the  Northern  States.  The 
people  of  the  South  were  exasperated  at  the  choice 
of  a  chief  magistrate  whom  they  regarded  as  in 
different  to  their  welfare  and  hostile  to  their  in 
terests. 

The  third  general  cause  of  the  civil  war  was 
the  want  of  intercourse  between  the  people  of  the 
North  and  the  South.  The  great  railroads  and 
thoroughfares  ran  east  and  west.  Emigration 
flowed  from  the  East  to  the  West.  Between  the 
North  and  the  South  there  was  little  travel  or  in 
terchange  of  opinion.  From  want  of  acquaintance 
the  people,  without  intending  it,  became  estranged, 


650  History  of  the  United  States 

jealous,  suspicious.  They  misjudged  each  other's 
motives.  They  misrepresented  each  other's  beliefs 
and  purposes.  They  suspected  each  other  of  dis 
honesty  and  ill-will.  Before  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  people  of  the  two  sections  looked  upon 
each  other  almost  in  the  light  of  different  nation 
alities. 

A  fourth  cause  was  found  in  the  publication  of 
sectional  books.  During  the  twenty  years  preced 
ing  the  war  many  works  were  published,  both  in 
the  North  and  the  South,  whose  popularity  de 
pended  wholly  on  the  animosity  existing  between 
the  two  sections.  Such  books  were  generally  filled 
with  ridicule  and  falsehood.  The  manners  and 
customs,  language  and  beliefs,  of  one  section  were 
held  up  to  the  contempt  and  scorn  of  the  people 
of  the  other  section.  The  minds  of  all  classesr 
especially  of  the  young,  were  thus  prejudiced  and 
poisoned.  In  the  North  the  belief  was  fostered 
that  the  South  was  given  up  to  inhumanity,  igno 
rance,  and  barbarism,  while  in  the  South  the  opin 
ion  prevailed  that  the  Northern  people  were  a  sel 
fish  race  of  mean,  cold-blooded  Yankees.  A  book 
published  in  the  North  was  especially  influential  in 
exposing  the  evils  of  slavery.  It  was  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  by  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.  Another  book, 
though  written  by  a  North  Carolinian,  was 
Helper's  Impending  Crisis,  in  which  an  attempt 
was  made  to  show  slavery  to  be  an  economic  evil. 
This  aroused  a  great  deal  of  feeling  among  his 
Southern  countrymen. 

A  fifth  cause  may  be  cited  in  the  influence  of 


First  Year  of  the  War  651 

the  professional  politician.  There  are  always  men 
who  help  to  incite  partisanship  and  sectionalism 
in  order  to  reap  political  reward.  That  the  people, 
North  and  South,  were  never  allowed  to  forget 
their  differences  was  often  seen  in  the  incendiary 
speeches  made  on  both  sides  of  the  Mason  and 
Dixon  Line.  While  these  are  in  brief  the  several 
causes,  remote  and  immediate,  of  one  of  the  most 
terrible  conflicts  of  modern  times,  yet  when  all 
these  are  reduced  to  their  last  analysis,  we  find 
that  slavery  was  the  controlling  factor  in  all  the 
differences  that  led  to  the  estrangement  of  the  two 
sections  of  our  land. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

FIRST  YEAR  OF  THE  WAR 

ON  the  24th  of  May  the  Union  army  crossed  the 
Potomac  from  Washington  city  to  Alexandria.  At 
this  time  Fortress  Monroe,  at  the  mouth  of  James 
River,  was  held  by  twelve  thousand  men,  under 
command  of  General  B.  F.  Butler.  At  Bethel 
Church,  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  was  stationed  a 
detachment  of  Confederates  commanded  by  Gen 
eral  Magruder.  On  the  loth  of  June  a  body  of 
Union  troops  was  sent  to  dislodge  them,  but  was 
repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  Meanwhile  the 
conquest  of  Western  Virginia  had  been  undertaken 
by  General  George  B.  McClellan. 


652  History  of  the  United  States 

In  the  last  days  of  May  General  T.  A.  Morris 
moved  forward  from  Parkersburg  to  Graf  ton  with 
a  force  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  troops,  and  on  the 
3d  of  June  came  upon  the  Confederates  stationed 
at  Philippi.  This  was  in  reality  the  first  battle 
of  the  war.  After  a  brief  engagement  the  Fed 
erals  were  successful;  the  Confederates  retreated 
toward  the  mountains.  General  McClellan  now 
arrived,  took  command  in  person,  and  on  the  nth 
of  July  gained  a  victory  at  Rich  Mountain.  Gen 
eral  Garnett,  the  Confederate  commander,  fell 
back  with  his  forces  to  Carrick's  Ford,  on  Cheat 
River,  made  a  stand,  was  again  defeated  and  him 
self  killed  in  the  battle.  On  the  loth  of  August 
General  Floyd,  commanding  a  detachment  of  Con 
federates  at  Carnifex  Ferry,  on  Gauley  River,  was 
attacked  by  General  Rosecrans  and  obliged  to  re 
treat.  On  the  1 4th  of  September  a  division  of 
Confederates  under  General  Robert  E.  Lee  was 
beaten  in  an  engagement  at  Cheat  Mountain — an 
action  which  completed  the  restoration  of  Federal 
authority  in  Western  Virginia.  The  people  living 
in  this  section  of  the  State  were  not  in  sympathy 
with  the  rebellion.  They  owned  but  few  slaves  and 
when  the  governor  of  Virginia  called  upon  them 
for  their  quota  of  troops  to  serve  in  the  Confed 
erate  army,  some  forty  of  these  mountain  counties 
refused.  Mass  meetings  were  held  in  various 
cities.  The  result  was  the  holding  of  a  convention. 
A  new  government  was  established  and  thus  in 
time  another  State  was  carved  from  the  soil  of 
the  Old  Dominion. 


First  Year  of  the  War  653 

In  the  beginning  of  June  General  Robert  Pat 
terson  marched  from  Chambersburg  with  the  in 
tention  of  recapturing  Harper's  Ferry.  On"  the 
iith  of  the  month  a  division  of  the  army  com 
manded  by  Colonel  Lewis  Wallace  made  a  sudden 
and  successful  onset  upon  a  detachment  of  Con 
federates  stationed  at  Romney.  Patterson  then 
crossed  the  Potomac  with  the  main  body,  entered 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  pressed  back  the  Con 
federate  forces  to  Winchester.  Thus  far  there  had 
been  only  petty  engagements,  skirmishes,  and 
marching.  The  time  had  now  come  when  the  first 
great  battle  of  the  war  was  to  be  fought. 

After  the  Union  successes  in  West  Virginia  the 
main  body  of  the  Confederates,  under  command 
of  General  Beauregard,  was  concentrated  at  Man- 
assas  Junction,  on  the  Orange  Railroad,  twenty- 
seven  miles  west  of  Alexandria.  Another  large 
force,  commanded  by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston, 
was  within  supporting  distance  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  The  Union  army  at  Alexandria  was  com 
manded  by  General  Irwin  McDowell,  while  Gen 
eral  Patterson  was  stationed  in  front  of  Johnston 
to  watch  his  movements  and  prevent  his  forming 
a  junction  with  Beauregard.  The  Federal  army 
consisted  of  raw,  untrained  militia,  and  were  far 
from  being  able  to  compete  with  the  Southerners, 
who  naturally  inclined  toward  the  military.  But 
there  was  a  general  note  of  impatience  in  the  North 
at  the  inactivity  of  the  army.  On  the  i6th  of 
July  the  national  army  moved  forward.  Two  days 
afterward  an  unimportant  engagement  took  place 


654  History  of  the  United  States 

between  Centreville  and  Bull  Run.  The  Unionists 
then  pressed  on,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  2ist — 
Sunday — came  upon  the  Confederate  army, 
strongly  posted  between  Bull  Run  and  Manassas 
Junction.  A  general  battle  ensued,  continuing  with 
great  severity  until  noonday.  At  that  hour  the 
advantage  was  with  McDowell,  and  it  seemed  not 
unlikely  that  the  Confederates  would  suffer  a  com 
plete  defeat.  But  in  the  crisis  of  the  battle  General 
Johnston  arrived  with  nearly  six  thousand  fresh 
troops  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  General  Pat 
terson  had  failed  to  detain  him.  This  blunder  lost 
the  Federals  the  day.  The  tide  of  victory  turned 
immediately,  and  in  a  short  time  McDowell's  whole 
army  was  hurled  back  in  utter  rout  and  confusion. 
A  ruinous  panic  spread  through  the  defeated  host. 
Soldiers  and  citizens,  regulars  and  volunteers, 
horsemen  and  footmen,  rolled  back  in  a  disorgan 
ized  mass  into  the  defenses  of  Washington.  The 
Union  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners 
amounted  to  two  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty- 
two;  that  of  the  Confederates  to  two  thousand  and 
fifty. 

Great  was  the  humiliation  of  the  North,  and 
greater  the  rejoicing  of  the  South.  But  the  defeat 
served  as  a  valuable  lesson  to  the  North.  They 
learned  that  the  contest  now  on  was  not  a  "  break 
fast  job,"  as  Secretary  Seward  had  said,  but  that 
the  Southern  people  were  in  deadly  earnest,  and 
for  the  first  time  there  was  a  feeling  that  the  war 
might  be  a  long  and  bloody  one.  For  a  while  the 
Federal  government  was  more  concerned  about 


A 


Copyright,  Patriot  Pub'g-.  Co.,  1910 
President  Lincoln  and  General  McClellan 

From   a   photograph   taken   just  two   weeks   after   the   battle   of 
Antietam 


First  Year  of  the  War  655 

its  own  safety  than  about  the  conquest  of  Rich 
mond.  In  that  city,  on  the  day  before  the  battle, 
the  new  Confederate  government  was  organized. 
In  the  Southern  Congress  and  cabinet  were  many 
men  of  distinguished  abilities.  Jefferson  Davis, 
the  President,  was  a  far-sighted  man,  of  wide 
experience  in  the  affairs  of  state,  and  consid 
erable  reputation  as  a  soldier.  He  had  led 
the  troops  of  Mississippi  in  the  Mexican 
War,  had  served  in  both  houses  of  the  national 
Congress,  and  as  a  member  of  President  Pierce's 
cabinet.  His  talents,  decision  of  character,  and 
ardent  advocacy  of  State  rights  had  made  him  a 
natural  leader  of  the  South.  In  the  meantime 
President  Lincoln  had  called  an  extra  session  of 
Congress.  There  was  a  general  unanimity  in  vot 
ing  the  President  all  the  men  and  munitions  of 
war  necessary  in  putting  down  the  rebellion.  He 
was  authorized  to  call  for  five  hundred  thousand 
additional  volunteers  for  three  years.  The  Sec 
retary  of  the  Treasury  was  permitted  to  borrow 
$250,000,000.  Taxes  were  levied,  the  navy  in 
creased,  and  the  whole  military  and  naval  forces 
were  put  on  a  war  footing. 

The  next  military  movements  were  made  in  Mis 
souri.  That  commonwealth,  though  slaveholding, 
still  retained  its  place  in  the  Union.  A  convention, 
called  by  Governor  Jackson  in  accordance  with  an 
act  of  the  legislature,  had  in  the  previous  March 
refused  to  pass  an  ordinance  of  secession.  The 
disunionists,  however,  were  numerous  and  power 
ful  ;  the  governor  favored  their  cause,  and  the  State 


656'  History  of  the  United  States 

became  a  battlefield  for  the  contending  parties. 
Both  Federal  and  Confederate  camps  were  organ 
ized,  and  hostilities  began  in  several  places.  By 
capturing  the  United  States  arsenal  at  Liberty,  in 
Clay  county,  the  Confederates  obtained  a  consid 
erable  supply  of  arms  and  ammunition.  By  the 
formation  of  Camp  Jackson,  near  St.  Louis,  the 
arsenal  in  that  city  was  also  endangered;  but  by 
the  vigilance  of  Captain  Nathaniel  Lyon  the  arms 
and  stores  were  sent  up  the  river  to  Alton,  and 
thence  to  Springfield.  Camp  Jackson  was  soon 
afterward  broken  up  by  the  exertions  of  the  same 
officer. 

The  lead  mines  in  the  southwest  part  of  the 
State  became  an  object  of  great  importance  to  the 
Confederates,  who,  in  order  to  secure  them,  hur 
ried  up  large  bodies  of  troops  from  Arkansas  and 
Texas.  On  the  iyth  of  June,  Lyon  encountered 
Governor  Jackson  with  a  Confederate  force  at 
Booneville,  and  gained  a  decided  advantage.  On 
the  5th  of  July  the  Unionists,  led  by  Colonel  Franz 
Sigel,  were  again  successful  in  a  severe  engagement 
with  the  governor  at  Carthage.  On  the  loth  of 
August  the  hardest  battle  thus  far  fought  in  the 
West  occurred  at  Wilson's  Creek,  a  short  distance 
south  of  Springfield.  General  Lyon  made  a  dar 
ing  but  rash  attack  on  a  much  superior  force  of 
Confederates  under  command  of  Generals  McCul- 
lough  and  Price.  The  Federals  at  first  gained  the 
field  against  heavy  odds,  but  General  Lyon  was 
killed,  and  his  men  retreated  under  direction  of 
Sigel. 


First  Year  of  the  War  657 

General  Price  now  pressed  northward  across  the 
State  to  Lexington,  on  the  Missouri  River.  This 
place  was  defended  by  a  force  of  Federals  two 
thousand  six  hundred  strong,  commanded  by 
Colonel  Mulligan.  A  stubborn  defense  was  made 
by  the  garrison,  but  Mulligan  was  soon  obliged  to 
capitulate.  Price  then  turned  southward,  and  on 
the  1 6th  of  October  Lexington  was  retaken  by  the 
Federals.  General  John  C.  Fremont,  who  had  been 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Union  forces 
in  Missouri,  followed  the  Confederates  as  far  as 
Springfield,  and  was  on  the  eve  of  making  an  at 
tack,  when  he  was  superseded  by  General  Hunter. 
The  latter,  after  retreating  to  St.  Louis,  was  in 
turn  superseded  by  General  Halleck  on  the  i8th 
of  November.  It  was  now  Price's  turn  to  fall 
back  toward  Arkansas.  The  only  remaining  move 
ment  of  importance  was  at  Belmont,  on  the  Miss 
issippi. 

The  Confederate  general  Polk,  acting  under  or 
ders  of  his  government,  had,  notwithstanding  that 
State's  neutrality,  entered  Kentucky  with  an  army, 
and  had  captured  the  town  of  Columbus.  Bat 
teries  planted  here  commanded  the  Mississippi. 
The  Confederates  gathered  in  force  at  Belmont, 
on  the  opposite  bank.  In  order  to  dislodge  them 
Colonel  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  with  a  brigade  of  three 
thousand  Illinois  troops,  was  sent  by  way  of  Cairo 
into  Missouri.  On  the  7th  of  November  he  made 
a  vigorous  and  successful  attack  on  the  Confed 
erate  camp ;  but  General  Polk  sent  re-enforcements 
across  the  river,  the  guns  of  Columbus  were 


658  History  of  the  United  States 

brought  to  bear  on  the  Union  position,  and  Grant 
was  obliged  to  retreat. 

The  rout  at  Bull  Run  had  the  effect  to  quicken 
the  energies  of  the  North,  and  troops  were  rap 
idly  hurried  to  Washington.  The  aged  General 
Scott,  unable  to  bear  the  burden  resting  upon  him, 
retired  from  active  duty,  and  General  McClellan 
from  his  victories  in  West  Virginia  was  called  to 
take  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  By 
the  middle  of  October  his  forces  had  increased  to 
a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  On  the  2ist 
of  that  month  a  brigade,  numbering  nearly  two 
thousand,  was  thrown  across  the  Potomac  at  Ball's 
Bluff.  Without  proper  support  or  means  of  retreat, 
the  Federals  were  attacked  by  a  strong  force -of 
Confederates  under  General  Evans,  driven  to  the 
river,  their  leader,  Colonel  Baker,  killed,  and  the 
whole  force  routed  with  terrible  loss.  Fully  eight 
hundred  of  Baker's  men  were  killed,  wounded,  or 
taken  prisoners. 

'  During  the  summer  of  1861  the  Federal  gov 
ernment  sent  to  sea  several  important  naval  ex 
peditions.  One  of  these,  commanded  by  Commo 
dore  Stringham  and  General  Butler,  proceeded  to 
the  North  Carolina  coast,  and  on  the  29th  of 
August  captured  the  forts  at  Hatteras  Inlet.  On 
the  7th  of  November  a  second  armament,  under 
command  of  Commodore  Dupont  and  General 
Thomas  W.  Sherman,  entered  the  harbor  of  Port 
Royal,  and  captured  Forts  Walker  and  Beaure- 
gard.  Hilton  Head,  a  point  most  advantageous 
for  military  operations  against  Charleston  and  Sa- 


First  Year  of  the  War  659 

vannah,  thus  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Federals. 
Around  the  whole  coast  the  blockade  was  becoming 
so  rigorous  that  commerce  and  communication  be 
tween  the  Confederate  States  and  foreign  nations 
were  being  rapidly  cut  off.  In  this  juncture  of 
affairs  a  difficulty  arose  which  brought  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  to  the  very  verge  of 
war. 

There  was  much  reason  for  the  South  to  expect 
aid  and  sympathy  from  some  of  the  European 
countries,  especially  England.  While  the  relations 
of  that  country  and  the  United  States  were  espe 
cially  amicable,  yet  the  cotton  mills  of  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  needed  cotton  from  the  South. 
Even  prominent  English  statesmen,  among  whom 
was  Gladstone,  prophesied  the  inability  of  the 
North  to  maintain  the  Union.  The  English  min 
istry  refused  to  commit  itself  on  the  matter  of 
the  recognition  of  the  Confederacy.  Scarcely  had 
the  echoes  from  the  guns  upon  Sumter  died  away, 
before  the  Confederate  government  was  accorded 
belligerent  rights. 

The  Confederate  government  had  appointed 
James  M.  Mason  and  John  Slidell,  formerly  sen 
ators  of  the  United  States,  to  go  abroad  as  ambas 
sadors  from  the  Confederate  States  to  France  and 
England.  The  envoys  went  on  board  a  blockade 
runner,  and  escaping  from  Charleston  Harbor, 
reached  Havana  in  safety.  At  that  port  they  took 
passage  on  the  British  mail  steamer  Trent,  and 
sailed  for  Europe.  On  the  8th  of  November 
the  vessel  was  overtaken  by  the  United  States 


660  History  of  the  United  Stales 

frigate  San  Jacinto,  commanded  by  Captain 
Wilkes.  The  Trent  was  hailed  and  boarded;  the 
two  ambassadors  and  their  secretaries  were  seized, 
transferred  to  the  San  Jacinto,  carried  to  Boston, 
and  imprisoned.  The  Trent  proceeded  on  her  way 
to  England;  the  story  of  the  insult  to  the  British 
flag  was  told,  and  the  whole  kingdom  burst  out 
in  a  blaze  of  wrath. 

At  first  the  people  of  the  United  States  loudly 
applauded  Captain  Wilkes,  and  the  government 
was  disposed  to  defend  his  action.  Congress  ten 
dered  him  a  vote  of  thanks.  The  Cabinet  with 
one  exception  united  with  the  people  in  their  re 
joicings.  The  President,  however,  saw  danger 
ahead.  England  at  once  flew  into  a  rage.  Prep 
arations  for  war  were  immediately  begun.  Seven 
days  were  allowed  in  which  the  United  States 
might  apologize.  The  country  was  saved  from 
the  peril  of  war  by  the  adroit  and  far-reaching 
diplomacy  of  William  H.  Seward,  the  secretary 
of  state.  When  Great  Britain  demanded  reparation 
for  the  insult  and  the  immediate  liberation  of  the 
prisoners,  he  replied  in  a  mild,  cautious,  and  very 
able  paper.  It  was  conceded  that  the  seizure  of 
Mason  and  Slidell  was  not  justifiable  according  to 
the  law  of  nations.  A  suitable  apology  was  made 
for  the  wrong  done,  the  Confederate  ambassadors 
were  liberated,  put  on  board  a  vessel,  and  sent  to 
their  destination.  This  action  of  the  secretary  was 
both  just  and  politic.  The  peril  of  war  went  by, 
and  Great  Britain  was  committed  to  a  policy  in 
regard  to  the  rights  of  neutral  flags  which  she  had 


Campaigns  of  '62  66 1 

hitherto  denied  and  which  the  United  States  had 
always  contended  for.  So  ended  the  first  year  of 
the  civil  war. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

CAMPAIGNS   OF    '62 

THE  Federal  forces  now  numbered  about  four  hun 
dred  and  fifty  thousand  men.  Of  these  nearly  two 
hundred  thousand,  under  command  of  General  Mc- 
Clellan,  were  encamped  in  the  vicinity  of  Wash 
ington.  Another  army,  commanded  by  General 
Buell,  was  stationed  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  and 
it  was  in  this  department  that  the  first  military 
movements  of  the  year  were  made.  On  the  9th 
of  January  Colonel  Humphrey  Marshall,  com 
manding  a  force  of  Confederates  on  Big  Sandy 
River,  in  Eastern  Kentucky,  was  attacked  and  de 
feated  by  a  body  of  Unionists,  led  by  Colonel  Gar- 
field.  Ten  days  later  another  and  more  important 
battle  was  fought  at  Mill  Spring,  in  the  same 
section  of  the  State.  The  Confederates  were  com 
manded  by  Generals  Crittenden  and  Zollicoffer, 
and  the  Federals  by  General  George  H.  Thomas. 
After  a  hot  engagement,  in  which  both  sides  lost 
heavily,  the  Confederates  suffered  a  defeat  which 
was  rendered  more  severe  by  the  loss  of  Zollicof 
fer,  who  fell  in  the  battle.  The  possession  of  the 
Mississippi  River  was  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  the  Federals.  The  people  of  the  West  were 


662  History  of  the  United  States 

particularly  desirous  of  holding  this  great  artery 
of  trade.  To  secure  it  meant  the  cutting  of  the 
Confederacy  in  twain.  The  opening  of  this  river 
now  became  one  of  the  prime  purposes  of  the 
North.  But  the  border  States  were  filled  with 
Confederate  forces.  Southern  Kentucky  was  still 
held  by  the  South,  and  to  clear  these  States  of 
the  opposing  armies  met  with  a  hearty  response 
from  the  people  of  the  Central  West. 

The  next  operations  were  on  the  Tennessee  and 
the  Cumberland.  •  The  Tennessee  River  was  com 
manded  at  the  southern  border  of  Kentucky  by 
Fort  Henry,  and  the  latter  by  the  more  important 
Fort  Donelson,  ten  miles  south  of  the  Tennessee 
line.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  capture  of 
both  these  places  was  planned  by  General  Halleck. 
Early  in  February  Commodore  Foote  was  sent  up 
the  Tennessee  with  a  flotilla  of  gunboats,  and  at 
the  same  time  General  Grant  was  ordered  to  move 
forward  and  cooperate  in  an  attack  on  Fort  Henry. 
Before  the  land  forces  were  well  into  position  the 
flotilla  compelled  the  evacuation  of  the  fort,  the 
Confederates  escaping  to  Donelson.  Eighty-three 
prisoners  and  a  large  amount  of  stores  were  cap 
tured. 

The  Federal  gunboats  now  dropped  down  the 
Tennessee,  took  on  supplies  at  Cairo,  and  then  as 
cended  the  Cumberland.  Grant  pressed  on  from 
Fort  Henry,  and  as  soon  as  the  flotilla  arrived 
began  the  siege  of  Fort  Donelson.  The  defenses 
were  strong,  and  well  manned  by  more  than  ten 
thousand  Confederates,  under  General  Buckner. 


Campaigns  of  '62  663 

Grant's  entire  force  numbered  nearly  thirty  thou 
sand.  On  the  1 4th  of  February  the  gunboats  were 
driven  back  with  considerable  loss,  Commodore 
Foote  being  among  the  wounded.  On  the  next 
day  the  garrison,  hoping  to  break  through  Grant's 
lines,  made  a  sally,  but  met  a  severe  repulse.  On 
the  1 6th  Buckner  was  obliged  to  surrender.  In 
the  early  morning  General  Buckner,  seeing  that  he 
could  not  hold  out  much  longer,  sent  a  note  to 
Grant  offering  to  capitulate.  Grant  sent  him  the 
laconic  reply  demanding  "  Unconditional  surren 
der,"  and  added,  "  I  propose  to  move  immediately 
upon  your  works."  His  army  of  ten  thousand 
men  became  prisoners  of  war,  and  all  the  maga 
zines,  stores,  and  guns  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Federals.  It  was  the  first  decided  victory  which 
had  been  won  by  the  national  arms.  The  immedi 
ate  result  was  the  evacuation  of  Kentucky  and  the 
capital  of  Tennessee  by  the  Confederates.  The 
way  to  the  western  South  was  now  open  to  the 
Federals.  General  Grant,  an  unknown  tanner  from 
Illinois,  suddenly  found  himself  famous. 

After  his  success  at  Fort  Donelson  General  Grant 
ascended  the  Tennessee  as  far  as  Pittsburg  Land 
ing.  In  the  beginning  of  April  a  camp  was  estab 
lished  near  Shiloh  Church,  a  short  distance  from 
the  river ;  and  here,  on  the  morning  of  the  6th,  the 
Union  army  was  suddenly  attacked  by  the  Confed 
erates,  led  by  Generals  Albert  S.  Johnston  and 
Beauregard.  The  attack  was  a  surprise  to  Grant. 
He  had  not  taken  proper  precaution  to  protect  his 
army. 


664  History  of  the  United  States 

On  Sunday  morning  there  burst  through  the 
woods  in  front  of  the  Union  camp  a  magnificent 
line  of  battle.  The  onset  was  at  first  successful. 
Grant,  who  had  spent  the  night  at  Savannah  some 
miles  away,  hastened  to  the  battlefield.  All  day 
long  the  battle  raged  with  tremendous  slaughter 
on  both  sides.  The  Federals  were  forced  back  to 
the  river,  and  but  for  the  protection  of  the  gun 
boats  would  have  been  driven  to  destruction. 
Night  fell  on  the  scene  with  the  conflict  undecided; 
but  in  this  desperate  crisis  General  Buell  arrived 
from  Nashville  with  strong  re-enforcements.  On 
the  following  morning  General  Grant  assumed  the 
offensive.  The  contest  reopened  at  daybreak.  The 
Confederates  yielded  slowly  before  the  heavy  im 
pact  of  the  Federal  columns  as  they  pressed  against 
them.  General  Johnston  had  been  killed  in  the 
battle,  and  Beauregard,  on  whom  the  command 
devolved,  was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Corinth.  The 
losses  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  in  this 
dreadful  conflict  were  more  than  ten  thousand  on 
each  side.  There  had  never  before  been  such  a 
harvest  of  death  in  the  New  World.  It  is  in  this 
battle  of  Shiloh  that  we  first  find  General  W.  T. 
Sherman  taking  a  prominent  part. 

Events  of  importance  were  also  taking  place  on 
the  Mississippi.  When  the  Confederates  evacuated 
Columbus,  Kentucky,  they  proceeded  to  Island 
Number  Ten,  a  few  miles  below,  and  built  strong 
fortifications  commanding  the  river.  On  the  west 
ern  shore  was  the  town  of  New  Madrid,  which  was 
held  by  a  Confederate  force  from  Missouri. 


Campaigns  of  '62  66$ 

Against  this  place  General  Pope  advanced  with  a 
body  of  Western  troops,  while  Commodore  Foote 
descended  the  Mississippi  with  his  flotilla  to  attack 
the  forts  on  the  island.  Pope  was  entirely  suc 
cessful  in  his  movement,  and  gained  possession  of 
New  Madrid.  The  land  forces  then  cooperated 
with  the  gunboats,  and  for  twenty-three  days  Island 
Number  Ten  was  vigorously  bombarded.  On  the 
yth  of  April,  when  the  Confederates  could  hold  out 
no  longer,  they  attempted  to  escape ;  but  Pope  had 
cut  off  retreat,  and  the  entire  garrison,  numbering 
about  seven  thousand,  was  captured.  The  Mississ 
ippi  was  thus  opened  as  far  down  as  Memphis, 
and  that  city  was  taken  by  the  fleet  of  Commodore 
Davis  on  the  6th  of  the  following  June. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  General  Curtis  had 
pushed  forward  through  Missouri,  entered  Arkan 
sas,  and  taken  position  at  Pea  Ridge,  among  the 
mountains  in  the  northwestern  angle  of  the  State. 
Here  he  was  attacked  on  the  6th  of  March  by 
an  army  of  more  than  twenty  thousand  Confed 
erates  and  Indians,  under  command  of  Generals 
McCulloch,  Mclntosh,  and  Pike.  After  a  hard 
fought  battle,  which  lasted  for  two  days,  the  Fed 
erals  were  victorious.  McCulloch  and  Mclntosh 
were  both  killed  and  their  men  obliged  to  retreat 
toward  Texas.  This  contest  settled  the  matter  of 
Missouri  joining  the  Confederacy.  From  this  time 
on  there  was  no  fear  of  this  northern  slave  State 
leaving  the  Union. 

On  the  next  day  after  the  conflict  at  Pea  Ridge 
an  event  occurred  at  Fortress  Monroe  which 


666 


History  of  the  United  States 


changed  the  character  of  naval  warfare.  It  was  to 
be  the  world's  first  battle  of  the  ironclads.  Cap 
tain  John  Ericsson,  of  New  York,  had  invented 
and  built  a  peculiar  war  vessel  with  a  single  round 
tower  of  iron  exposed  above  the  water-line.  Mean 
while,  the  Confederates  had  raised  the  United 
States  frigate  Merrimac,  one  of  the  sunken  ships 


Battle  Between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac 

at  the  Norfolk  navy  yard,  and  had  plated  the  sides 
with  an  impenetrable  mail  of  iron.  This  done,  the 
vessel  was  sent  to  attack  the  Union  fleet  at  Fortress 
Monroe.  Reaching  that  place  on  the  8th  of 
March,  the  Merrimac  began  the  work  of  destruc 
tion,  and  before  sunset  two  valuable  vessels,  the 
Cumberland  and  the  Congress,  were  sent  to  the 
bottom.  During  the  unequal  contest  the  shore 
batteries  poured  volley  after  volley  on  the  sides 
of  the  Merrimac,  but  they  glanced  harmlessly  into 


Campaigns  of  '62  667 

the  water.  During  the  night,  however,  Ericsson's 
strange  ship,  called  the  Monitor,  arrived  from 
New  York,  and  on  the  following  morning  the  two 
ironclad  monsters  turned  their  terrible  enginery 
upon  each  other.  After  fighting  for  five  hours, 
the  Merrimac  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  contest 
and  to  return  badly  damaged  to  Norfolk.  The 
timely  arrival  of  this  "  Yankee  Cheese-box  on  a 
Raft,"  as  it  was  called,  not  only  saved  the  other 
Union  vessels,  but  proved  the  salvation  of  the 
wooden  ships  elsewhere.  With  such  a  powerful 
leviathan  of  war  the  blockade  of  the  Southern 
coast  could  easily  have  been  lifted.  Such  was 
the  excitement  produced  by  this  novel  sea  fight  that 
for  a  while  the  whole  energies  of  the  navy  depart 
ment  were  devoted  to  building  monitors. 

Early  in  1862  a  strong  land  and  naval  force, 
commanded  by  General  Ambrose  E.  Burnside  and 
Commodore  Goldsborough,  was  sent  against  the 
Confederate  garrison  of  Roanoke  Island.  On  the 
8th  of  February  the  squadron  reached  its  destina 
tion  ;  the  fortifications  on  the  island  were  attacked 
and  carried,  and  the  garrisons,  nearly  three  thou 
sand  strong,  taken  prisoners.  Burnside  next  pro 
ceeded  against  Newbern,  North  Carolina,  and  on 
the  1 4th  of  March  captured  the  city  after  four 
hours  of  severe  fighting.  Proceeding  southward, 
he  reached  the  harbor  of  Beaufort,  carried  Fort 
Macon,  at  the  entrance,  and  on  the  25th  of  April 
took  possession  of  the  town. 

On  the  i  ith  of  the  same  month  Fort  Pulaski, 
commanding  the  mouth  of  the  Savannah  River, 


668  History  of  the  United  States 

surrendered  to  General  Gillmore.  By  this  impor 
tant  capture  the  chief  emporium  of  Georgia  was 
effectually  blockaded.  But  these  reverses  of  the 
Confederates  were  trifling  in  comparison  with  that 
which  they  sustained  in  the  loss  of  the  city  of  New 
Orleans.  Early  in  April  a  powerful  squadron, 
commanded  by  General  Butler  and  Admiral  Far- 
ragut,  entered  the  Mississippi  and  proceeded  as 
far  as  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  thirty  miles 
above  the  gulf.  The  guns  of  these  forts,  standing 
on  opposite  shores,  completely  commanded  the 
river,  and  obstructions  had  been  placed  in  the  chan 
nel.  The  forty-seven  vessels  comprising  the  Fed 
eral  fleet  were  brought  into  position  and  a  furious 
bombardment  of  the  forts  was  begun.  From  the 
1 8th  to  the  24th  of  April  the  fight  continued  with 
out  cessation.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  forts 
were  but  little  injured,  and  Farragut  undertook 
the  hazardous  enterprise  of  running  past  the  bat 
teries.  In  this  he  succeeded,  breaking  the  chain 
across  the  river  and  overpowering  the  Confederate 
fleet  above  the  obstructions.  The  Union  fleet  had 
thrown  16,800  shells.  The  roar  of  the  artillery 
had  literally  shaken  the  earth.  Just  before  dawn 
of  the  24th  the  grand  finale  of  this  five  days'  ar 
tillery  duel  occurred.  Fire  rafts  had  been  floated 
down  to  burn  the  Union  ships.  Amid  the  lurid 
flames  of  these  fire  ships  and  the  gleams  from  the 
shrieking  shells  as  they  hurtled  through  the  air, 
Farragut,  the  hero  of  the  battle,  unperturbed, 
directed  the  movements  of  the  vessels.  On  the  next 
day  he  reached  New  Orleans  with  a  portion  of 


Campaigns  of  '62  669 

his  fleet,  and  took  possession  of  the  city.  The  citi 
zens  of  New  Orleans  could  hardly  believe  that  their 
city  had  actually  been  taken.  When  they  fully 
realized  it  there  was  indescribable  excitement. 
Panic  reigned  everywhere.  Immense  quantities  of 
cotton  were  burned,  and  it  is  said  the  flames  could 
be  seen  thirty  miles  away.  General  Butler  became 
commandant,  and  the  fortifications  were  manned 
with  fifteen  thousand  Federal  soldiers.  Three 
days  afterward  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  sur 
rendered  to  Admiral  Porter,  who  had  remained 
below  and  prosecuted  the  siege.  The  control  of 
the  lower  Mississippi  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
South  was  thus  recovered  by  the  Federal  govern 
ment. 

The  Confederates  were  not  going  to  give  up 
Kentucky  without  a  struggle.  From  East  Tennes 
see  they  invaded  the  State  in  two  strong  divisions, 
the  one  led  by  General  Kirby  Smith  and  the  other 
by  General  Bragg.  On  the  3Oth  of  August 
Smith's  army  reached  Richmond,  attacked  a  force 
of  Federals  stationed  there,  and  routed  them  with 
heavy  losses.  Lexington  was  taken,  and  then 
Frankfort;  and  Cincinnati  was  saved  from  capture 
only  by  the  extraordinary  exertions  of  General 
Wallace.  Meanwhile,  the  army  of  General  Bragg 
had  advanced  from  Chattanooga  to  Mumfords- 
ville,  where,  on  the  iyth  of  September,  he  cap 
tured  a  Federal  division  of  four  thousand  five 
hundred  men.  From  this  point  the  Confederate 
general  pressed  on  toward  Louisville,  and  would 
have  taken  the  city  but  for  a  forced  march  of 


670  History  of  the  United  States 

General  Buell  from  Tennessee.  The  latter  arrived 
with  his  army  only  one  day  ahead  of  Bragg,  but 
that  one  day  gave  the  Unionists  the  advantage,  and 
the  Confederates  were  turned  back.  From  the 
North  came  re-enforcements  for  Buell's  army, 
swelling  his  numbers  to  a  hundred  thousand.  In 
the  beginning  of  October  he  again  took  the  field, 
the  Confederates  slowly  retiring  to  Perryville.  At 
this  place,  on  the  8th  of  October,  Bragg  was 
overtaken,  and  a  severe  but  indecisive  battle  was 
fought.  The  retreat  was  then  continued  to  East 
Tennessee,  the  Confederates  sweeping  out  of  Ken 
tucky  a  train  of  four  thousand  wagons  laden  with 
the  spoils  of  the  campaign. 

In  September  there  were  some  stirring  events 
in  Mississippi.  On  the  iQth  of  the  month  a  hard 
battle  was  fought  at  luka  between  a  Federal  army, 
commanded  by  Generals  Rosecrans  and  Grant,  and 
a  Confederate  force,  under  General  Price.  The 
latter  was  defeated,  losing,  in  addition  to  his  killed 
and  wounded,  nearly  a  thousand  prisoners.  Gen 
eral  Rosecrans  now  took  post  at  Corinth  with 
twenty  thousand  men,  while  General  Grant,  with 
the  remainder  of  the  Federal  forces,  proceeded  to 
Jackson,  Tennessee.  Perceiving  this  division  of 
the  army,  the  Confederate  generals  Van  Dorn  and 
Price  turned  about  to  recapture  Corinth.  Advanc 
ing  for  that  purpose,  they  came  on  the  3d  of  Octo 
ber  upon  the  Federal  defenses.  Another  obsti 
nately  contested  battle  ensued,  which  ended,  after 
two  days'  fighting  and  heavy  losses  on  both  sides, 
in  the  repulse  of  the  Confederates. 


Campaigns  of  '62  671 

In  the  mean  time,  General  Grant  had  removed 
his  headquarters  from  Jackson  to  La  Grange.  His 
purpose  was  to  cooperate  with  General  Sherman, 
then  at  Memphis,  in  an  effort  to  capture  Vicksburg. 
The  movement  promised  to  be  successful,  but  on 
the  2Oth  of  December  General  Van  Dorn  suc 
ceeded  in  cutting  Grant's  line  of  supplies  at  Holly 
Springs,  and  obliged  him  to  retreat.  On  the  same 
day  General  Sherman,  with  a  powerful  armament, 
dropped  down  the  river  from  Memphis.  Proceed 
ing  as  far  as  the  Yazoo,  he  effected  a  landing,  and 
on  the  29th  of  the  month  made  an  unsuccessful 
attack  on  the  Confederates  at  Chickasaw  Bayou. 
The  assault  was  exceedingly  disastrous  to  the  Fed 
erals,  who  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners 
more  thari  three  thousand  men.  The  enterprise 
was  at  once  abandoned,  and  the  defeated  army 
returned  to  the  fleet  of  gunboats  in  the  Mississippi. 

The  closing  conflict  of  this  year's  operations  in 
the  West  was  the  great  battle  of  Murfreesborough. 
After  his  successful  defense  of  Corinth  General 
Rosecrans  was  transferred  to  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland.  Late  in  the  fall  he 
made  his  headquarters  at  Nashville,  and  there  col 
lected  a  powerful  army  of  forty-seven  thousand. 
Meanwhile,  General  Bragg,  on  his  retirement 
from  Kentucky,  had  thrown  his  forces  into  Mur 
freesborough.  Thus  the  two  generals  found  them 
selves  face  to  face,  and  but  forty  miles  apart. 
Late  in  December,  Rosecrans  moved  forward  to 
attack  his  antagonist,  and  on  the  evening  of  the 
3Oth  came  upon  the  Confederates  strongly  posted 


672  History  of  the  United  States 

on  Stone's  River,  a  short  distance  northwest  of 
Murfreesborough.  On  the  following  morning 
Bragg  advanced  to  the  attack,  and  a  furious  bat 
tle  ensued,  continuing  until  nightfall.  Such  was 
the  success  of  the  Confederates  that  the  Union 
army  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  Only 
the  heroism  of  Generals  Thomas  and  Rosecrans 
kept  the  army  from  being  utterly  shattered.  But 
during  the  night  Rosecrans  rallied  his  forces,  ar 
ranged  his  batteries,  and  at  daybreak  was  ready 
to  renew  the  conflict.  On  that  day  there  was  a 
lull,  both  generals  preparing  for  the  final  struggle. 
On  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  January  Bragg's 
army  again  rushed  to  the  onset,  gained  some  suc 
cesses  at  first,  was  then  checked,  and  finally  driven 
back  with  heavy  losses.  The  main  loss  fell  upon 
the  division  of  Breckinridge.  Two  thousand  of 
his  men  were  lost  within  twenty  minutes.  Bragg, 
however,  withdrew  his  shattered  columns  in  good 
order,  then  abandoned  Murfreesborough  and  filed 
off  toward  Chattanooga.  In  this  desperate  engage 
ment  the  losses  amounted  to  more  than  ten  thou 
sand  on  each  side. 

In  Virginia  the  campaigns  of  1862  were  even 
more  grand  and  destructive  than  those  in  the  West. 
The  first  stirring  scenes  of  the  year  were  enacted 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Desiring  to  occupy 
this  important  district,  the  Federal  government 
sent  forward  a  strong  division  under  General 
Banks,  who  pressed  his  way  southward,  and  in 
the  last  days  of  March  occupied  the  town  of  Har- 
risonburg.  In  order  to  counteract  this  movement* 


Campaigns  of  '62  673 

the  gallant  Stonewall  Jackson  was  sent  with  a 
force  of  twenty  thousand  men  to  pass  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  cut  off  Banks's  retreat.  At  Front  Royal, 
on  the  Shenandoah,  just  before  the  gap  in  the 
mountains,  the  Confederates  fell  upon  a  body 
of  Federals,  routed  them,  captured  their  guns  and 
all  the  military  stores  in  the  town.  Banks  suc 
ceeded,  however,  in  passing  with  his  main  division 
to  Strasburg.  There  he  learned  of  the  disaster 
at  Front  Royal,  and  immediately  began  his  retreat 
down  the  valley.  Jackson  pursued  him  hotly,  and 
it  was  only  by  the  utmost  exertions  that  the  Fed 
erals  gained  the  northern  bank  of  the  Potomac. 

The  Confederate  leader,  though  completely  vic 
torious,  now  found  himself  in  great  peril.  For 
General  Fremont,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  force 
of  fresh  troops,  had  been  sent  into  the  valley  to 
intercept  the  retreat  of  the  Confederates.  It  was 
now  Jackson's  time  to  save  his  army.  With  the 
utmost  celerity  he  sped  up  the  valley,  and  suc 
ceeded  in  reaching  Cross  Keys  before  Fremont 
could  attack  him.  Even  then  the  battle  was  so 
little  decisive  that  Jackson  pressed  on  to  Port 
Republic,  attacked  the  division  of  General  Shields, 
defeated  it,  and  then  retired  from  the  scene  of 
his  brilliant  campaign  to  join  in  the  defense  of 
Richmond.  All  during  the  autumn  and  winter 
of  1 86 1  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  lay  inactive, 
as  far  as  campaigns  were  concerned,  in  the  camps 
about  Washington.  The  bitter  lesson  taught  the 
Unionists  at  Bull  Run  was  bearing  fruit.  Under 
the  leadership  of  General  George  B.  McClellan, 


674  History  of  the  United  States 

this  raw,  untrained  body  of  men  was  to  be  welded 
into  a  fighting  machine  that  should  bear  the  brunt 
of  three  years  of  terrible  campaigning.  No  better 
man  could  have  been  found  for  the  task  than  this 
popular  general,  fresh  from  his  victories  in 
West  Virginia.  In  these  months  of  drill,  McClel- 
lan  transformed  this  disorganized  and  disheart 
ened  mass  of  men  that  returned  from  Bull  Run 
into  an  army  that  at  a  later  day  under  the  tenacious 
Grant  could  beat  down  the  walls  of  Petersburg. 
Public  opinion  was,  however,  getting  restless.  The 
press  was  demanding  that  this  magnificent  army, 
consisting  of  the  flower  of  the  North,  should  now 
get  out  and  do  something.  At  last  the  army  was 
ready  to  move. 

On  the  loth  of  March  the  grand  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  numbering  nearly  two  hundred  thousand 
men,  under  command  of  General  McClellan,  set 
out  from  the  camps  about  Washington  to  capture 
the  Confederate  capital.  The  advance  proceeded 
as  far  as  Manassas  Junction,  the  Confederates 
falling  back  and  forming  a  new  line  of  defenses 
on  the  Rappahannock.  At  this  stage  of  the  cam 
paign  McClellan,  changing  his  plan,  embarked  a 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  of  his  men  for  Fort 
ress  Monroe,  intending  from  that  point  to  march 
up  the  peninsula  between  the  James  and  the  York. 
This  transfer  of  the  army  with  all  its  accouter- 
ments  was  a  stupendous  undertaking,  requiring 
great  skill.  The  celerity  and  ease  with  which  it 
was  done  does  credit  to  the  splendid  discipline  of 
McClellan's  army.  By  the  4th  of  April  the  trans- 


Campaigns  of  '62  675 

fer  of  troops  was  completed,  and  the  Union  army 
left  Fortress  Monroe  for  Yorktown.  The  road 
over  which  the  Union  army  passed  was  through 
the  low  tidal  belt  of  Virginia.  The  soldiers  suf 
fered  intensely  and  the  progress  was  necessarily 
slow  as  they  trudged  over  the  boggy  marshes  of 
the  Peninsula.  Yorktown  was  garrisoned  by  ten 
thousand  Confederates,  under  General  Magruder; 
and  yet  with  so  small  a  force  McClellan's  advance 
was  delayed  for  a  whole  month.  When  at  last, 
on  the  4th  of  May,  Yorktown  was  taken  by  siege, 
the  Federal  army  pressed  forward  to  Williams- 
burg,  where  the  Confederates  made  a  stand,  but 
were  defeated.  Four  days  afterward,  in  an  en 
gagement  at  West  Point,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Mattapony  and  Pamunkey,  the  Confederates  were 
again  driven  back.  The  way  to  Richmond  was 
now  open  as  far  as  the  Chickahominy,  ten  miles 
north  of  the  city.  The  Union  army  reached  that 
stream  without  further  resistance,  and  crossed  at 
Bottom's  Bridge. 

Meanwhile,  General  Wool,  the  commandant 
of  Fortress  Monroe,  had  not  been  idle.  On  the 
loth  of  May  he  led  an  expedition  against  Norfolk 
and  captured  the  town;  for  the  Confederate  gar 
rison  had  been  withdrawn  to  aid  in  the  defense 
of  Richmond.  On  the  next  day  the  celebrated 
ironclad  Merrimac  was  blown  up  to  save  her  from 
capture  by  the  Federals.  The  James  River  was 
thus  opened  for  the  ingress  of  national  transports 
laden  with  supplies  for  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
That  army  now  advanced  toward  Richmond,  and 


676  History  of  the  United  States 

when  but  seven  miles  from  the  city  was  attacked 
on  the  3  ist  of  May  by  the  Confederates  at  a 
place  called  Fair  Oaks  or  Seven  Pines.  Here  for 
a  part  of  two  days  the  battle  raged  with  great 
fury.  At  last  the  Confederates  were  driven  back; 
but  McClellan's  victory  was  by  no  means  decisive. 
Richmond  was  but  six  miles  away.  The  spires  of 
the  city  were  in  plain  view,  and  but  for  the  swampy 
valley  of  the  Chickahominy  the  city  could  have 
easily  been  taken.  The  Confederate  loss  was 
largest,  amounting  to  nearly  eight  thousand  in 
killed  and  wounded;  that  of  the  Federals  was 
more  than  five  thousand.  Among  the  severely 
wounded  was  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Confederates.  Two 
days  after  the  battle  his  place  was  filled  by  the 
appointment  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee,  a  man 
of  military  genius,  who,  until  its  final  downfall, 
remained  the  chief  stay  of  the  Confederacy. 

There  was  now  a  period  of  inactivity  except  for 
the  establishment  of  the  supply  depot.  President 
Lincoln  had  promised  McClellan  the  army  of  forty 
thousand  under  General  McDowell.  To  make  a 
junction  with  the  force  that  was  coming  to  his  help, 
McClellan  had  extended  his  right  wing.  But  Lin 
coln  changed  his  plans.  McDowell  did  not  come 
and  McClellan  found  himself  with  his  army  di 
vided  by  the  sluggish  Chickahominy.  The  Army 
of  the  Potomac  was  now  on  the  retreat  and  the 
battles  that  followed,  taken  collectively,  are  known 
as  the  Seven  Days'  Fight  before  Richmond.  These 
mark  the  places  where  McClellan's  army  turned 


Campaigns  of  '62  677 

at  bay  to  beat  back  the  pursuers.  McClellan 
now  formed  the  design  of  changing  his  base  of 
supplies  from  White  House,  on  the  Pamunkey, 
to  some  suitable  point  on  the  James.  The  move 
ment  was  one  of  the  utmost  hazard,  and  before 
it  was  fairly  begun  General  Lee,  on  the  25th  of 
June,  swooped  down  on  the  right  wing  of  the 
Union  army  at  Oak  Grove,  and  a  hard-fought 
battle  ensued  without  decisive  results.  On  the 
next  day  another  dreadful  engagement  occurred 
at  Mechanicsville,  and  this  time  the  Federals  won 
the  field.  But  on  the  following  morning  Lee 
renewed  the  struggle  at  Gaines's  Mill  and  came 
out  victorious.  On  the  28th  there  was  but  little 
fighting.  On  the  29th  McClellan's  retreating  army 
was  twice  attacked — in  the  morning  at  Savage's 
Station  and  in  the  afternoon  in  the  White  Oak 
Swamp — but  the  divisions  defending  the  rearguard 
kept  the  Confederates  at  bay.  On  the  3Oth  was 
fought  the  desperate  but  indecisive  battle  of  Glen- 
dale  or  Frazier's  Farm.  On  that  night  the  Federal 
army  reached  Malvern  Hill,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  James,  twelve  miles  below  Richmond.  Al 
though  this  position  was  protected  by  the  Federal 
gunboats  in  the  river,  General  Lee  determined  to 
carry  the  place  by  storm.  Accordingly,  on  the 
morning  of  the  ist  of  July,  the  whole  Confed 
erate  army  rushed  forward  to  the  assault.  All 
day  long  the  furious  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  the  high  grounds  continued.  Not  until  nine 
o'clock  at  night  did  Lee's  shattered  columns  fall 
back  exhausted.  For  seven  days  the  terrific  roar 


678  History  of  the  United  States 

of  battle  had  been  heard  almost  without  cessation. 
No  such  dreadful  scenes  had  ever  been  acted  on 
the  American  continent. 

Although  victorious  on  Malvern  Hill,  General 
McClellan,  instead  of  advancing  at  once  on  Rich 
mond,  chose  a  less  hazardous  movement,  and  on 
the  2d  of  July  retired  with  his  army  to  Harrison's 
Landing,  a  few  miles  down  the  river.  The  great 
campaign  was  really  at  an  end.  The  Federal  army 
had  lost  more  than  fifteen  thousand  men,  and  the 
capture  of  Richmond,  the  great  object  for  which 
the  expedition  had  been  undertaken,  seemed  fur 
ther  off  than  ever.  The  losses  of  the  Confederates 
had  been  heavier  than  those  of  the  Union  army, 
but  all  the  moral  effects  of  a  great  victory  re 
mained  with  the  exultant  South. 

McClellan's  purpose  was  to  move  against  Rich 
mond  from  this  point,  but  his  plans  were  disap 
proved  of  at  Washington  and  he  was  ordered  to 
bring  his  army  back  to  that  city. 

General  Lee,  perceiving  that  Richmond  was  no 
longer  endangered,  immediately  formed  the  design 
of  invading  Maryland  and  capturing  the  Federal 
capital.  The  Union  troops  between  Richmond  and 
Washington,  numbering  in  the  aggregate  about 
fifty  thousand,  were  under  command  of  General 
John  Pope.  They  were  scattered  in  detachments 
from  Fredericksburg  to  Winchester  and  Harper's 
Ferry.  Lee  moved  northward  about  the  middle 
of  August,  and  on  the  2Oth  of  the  month  Pope, 
concentrating  his  forces  as  rapidly  as  possible,  put 
the  Rappahannock  between  his  army  and  the  ad- 


Campaigns  of  '62  679 

vancing  Confederates.  Meanwhile,  General  Banks, 
while  attempting  to  form  a  junction  with  Pope,  was 
attacked  by  Stonewall  Jackson  at  Cedar  Mountain, 
where  nothing  but  desperate  fighting  saved  the 
Federals  from  complete  rout. 

No  sooner  had  Pope  gotten  his  forces  well  in 
hand  than  Jackson  shot  by  with  his  division  on 
a  flank  movement,  reached  Manassas  Junction,  and 
made  large  captures  of  men  and  stores.  Pope  with 
great  audacity  threw  his  army  between  the  two 
divisions  of  the  Confederates,  hoping  to  crush 
Jackson  before  Lee  could  come  to  the  rescue.  On 
August  28th  and  29th  there  was  terrible  but  inde 
cisive  fighting  at  Manassas  Junction,  the  old  Bull 
Run  battleground,  and  Centreville.  At  one  time 
it  seemed  that  Lee's  army  would  be  completely  de 
feated;  but  Pope's  re-enforcements  were  withheld 
by  General  Fitz-John  Porter,  and  on  the  3ist  of 
the  month  the  Confederates  bore  down  on  the 
Union  army  at  Chantilly,  fought  all  day,  and  won 
a  victory.  Generals  Stevens  and  Kearny  were 
among  the  thousands  of  brave  men  who  fell  in 
this  battle.  On  that  night  Pope  withdrew  his 
broken  columns  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  found 
safety  within  the  defenses  of  Washington.  His 
wish  to  be  relieved  of  his  command  was  immedi 
ately  complied  with ;  his  forces,  known  as  the  Army 
of  Virginia,  were  consolidated  with  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  which  had  now  returned  from  the 
peninsula  below  Richmond;  and  General  McClel- 
lan  was  placed  in  supreme  command  of  all  the  divi 
sions  about  Washington. 


68o  History  of  the  United  States 

General  Lee  prosecuted  his  invasion  of  Mary 
land.  Passing  up  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac, 
he  crossed  at  Point  of  Rocks,  and  on  the  6th  of 
September  captured  Frederick.  On  the  loth  Ha- 
gerstown  was  taken,  and  on  the  I5th  a  division  of 
the  Confederate  army,  led  by  Stonewall  Jackson, 
came  upon  Harper's  Ferry  and  frightened  Colonel 
Miles  into  a  surrender  by  which  the  garrison, 
nearly  twelve  thousand  strong,  became  prisoners 
of  war.  On  the  previous  day  there  was  a  hard- 
fought  engagement  at  South  Mountain,  in  which 
the  Federals,  led  by  Hatch  and  Doubleday,  were 
victorious.  McClellan's  whole  army  was  now  in 
the  immediate  rear  of  Lee,  who,  on  the  night  of 
the  1 4th,  fell  back  to  Antietam  Creek  and  took  a 
strong  position  in  the  vicinity  of  Sharpsburg.  Then 
followed  two  days  of  skirmishing  and  maneuver 
ing,  which  terminated  on  the  lyth  in  one  of  the 
great  battles  of  the  war.  From  morning  till  night 
the  struggle  continued  writh  unabated  violence,  and 
ended,  after  a  loss  of  more  than  ten  thousand  men 
on  each  side,  in  a  drawn  battle.  This  is  said  to 
be  the  bloodiest  day  in  American  history.  But  to 
the  Confederates,  who  were  greatly  inferior  in 
numbers,  the  result  was  almost  as  disastrous  as 
defeat.  McClellan  did  not  press  his  advantage, 
and  Lee  withdrew  his  forces  from  the  field  and 
recrossed  the  Potomac  in  safety.  His  campaign 
of  only  a  month  had  cost  him  nearly  thirty  thou 
sand  men,  and  his  proposed  invasion  of  the  North 
was  at  an  end  for  this  time. 

General    McClellan,    following   the    retreating 


Campaigns  of  '62  68 1 

Confederates,  again  entered  Virginia,  and  reached 
Rectortown.  Here  he  was  superseded  in  the  com 
mand  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  by  General 
Burnside,  who  at  once  changed  the  plan  of  the 
campaign  and  advanced  against  Fredericksburg,  on 
the  Rappahannock.  Here  the  two  armies  in  full 
force  were  again  brought  face  to  face  with  only 
the  river  between  them.  Burnside's  movement  was 
fatally  delayed  by  the  non-arrival  of  his  pontoons, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  nth  and  I2th  of  Decem 
ber  that  a  passage  could  be  effected.  Meanwhile 
the  heights  south  of  the  river  had  been  thoroughly 
fortified,  and  the  Union  columns  were  hurled  back 
in  several  desperate  assaults  which  cost  the  as 
sailants  the  dreadful  loss  of  more  than  twelve  thou 
sand  men.  Thus  in  gloom  and  disaster  to  the 
Federal  cause  ended  the  great  campaigns  of  1862. 


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